react-text: 396 Analyzing how networks emerge and evolve within and between geographical clusters /react-text react-text: 397 /react-text

Exporters continuously enter and exit individual foreign markets. Although a given firm's status as an exporter tends to be persistent, the set of destination countries that a firm serves changes frequently. In this paper we empirically examine the determinants of a firm's choice of destination countries and show that their export paths follow systematic patterns. We develop a model of export dynamics where firms decide in each period the countries to which they sell. Our model allows prots from each possible destination country to depend on: (a) how similar it is to the firm's home country (gravity), and (b) how similar it is to other destinations to which the firm has previously exported (extended gravity). Given the enormous number of possible export paths from which firms may choose, conventional estimation approaches based on discrete choice models are unfeasible. Instead, we use a moment inequalities approach. Our inequalities come from applying an analogue of Euler's perturbation method to a discrete choice setting. We show that standard gravity forces have a much larger influence on sunk costs than on fixed costs of exporting and that extended gravity effects can be substantial.

为了检验市场相似性对我国产品进入新市场的影响，采用2000—2011年中国海关HS-6产品数据建立起大约237万个“产品-市场-年份”三维观测样本，并运用二值Logit模型对此面板数据进行回归，发现出口市场扩张是存在“路径依赖”的，即企业倾向选择那些与其之前出口市场地理相近、文化相似、经济相似的国家作为新进入的市场。相似市场的出口经验，不仅在同类产品之间产生了显著的信息溢出，而且对除石油之外不同种类产品的新市场进入也具有显著的积极影响。基于Rauch（1999）分类标准的结果则进一步发现，与同质产品相比，差异产品的出口扩张更显著地受到市场相似性的影响。

本文基于2000~2006年中国海关数据库企业一出口市场对的贸易数据,采用条件Logit模型考察中国企业出口市场选择的空间模式。结果表明,中国企业的出口市场选择受企业以往出口经验的影响,存在明显的路径依赖。企业倾向于选择与老出口市场地理邻近或文化相似的出口市场建立新贸易关系,尤其是与前者。其中,外资企业和加工贸易企业的出口市场选择更加依赖于新老出口市场间的各种相似性关系。这提醒我们,企业应充分利用自身的出口经验,尤其是成功的出口经验在相似出口市场间的溢出效应以加强新市场开拓的针对性和有效性,形成结构合理的贸易网络以稳定出口。

abstractIn Dutch: Naar een Nieuwe Wereldeconomie: voorstellen voor een internationaal economisch beleid, Rotterdam University Press, Rotterdam, 1965, XV + 335 p.In Spanish: Hacia Una Economía Mundial: sugerencias para una política económica internacional, Series Biblioteca de Economía No.7, Orbis, Barcelona, 1985, 242 p.text

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Gravity equations have been widely used to infer trade flow effects of various institutional arrangements. We show that estimated gravity equations do not have a theoretical foundation. This implies both that estimation suffers from omitted variables bias and that comparative statics analysis is unfounded. We develop a method that (i) consistently and efficiently estimates a theoretical gravity equation and (ii) correctly calculates the comparative statics of trade frictions. We apply the method to solve the famous McCallum border puzzle. Applying our method, we find that national borders reduce trade between industrialized countries by moderate amounts of 20-50 percent.

本文运用引力模型检验了新兴市场经济体的出口贸易流量的决定，从总量和部门两个层次就中国对40个主要贸易伙伴的出口潜力进行了估算，结果显示中国的出口在总体上表现为“贸易过度”，但对俄罗斯、日本等七个国家或地区表现为“贸易不足”。此外，出口潜力的结构因素分析表明，与对美国(参照国)的出口相比，中国对其他经济体的出口相对不足的首要影响因素是贸易伙伴的经济规模总量，地理和区域贸易安排因素发挥着相对次要的作用，再接下来是贸易依存度和人均收入的影响，而进口国的贸易限制措施及与中国的贸易匹配程度等因素可以部分地解释余下的影响作用。

Recent theoretical models of entry predict that, in the presence of sunk costs, current market participation is affected by prior experience. This paper quantifies the effect of prior exporting experience on the decisions of Colombian manufacturing plants to participate in foreign markets. It develops a dynamic discrete-choice model of exporting behavior that separates the roles of profit heterogeneity and sunk entry costs in explaining plants' exporting status. Sunk costs are found to be significant, and prior export experience is shown to increase the probability of exporting by as much as 60 percentage points.

Abstract This paper develops a dynamic industry model with heterogeneous firms to analyze the intra-industry effects of international trade. The model shows how the exposure to trade will induce only the more productive firms to enter the export market (while some less productive firms continue to produce only for the domestic market) and will simultaneously force the least productive firms to exit. It then shows how further increases in the industry's exposure to trade lead to additional inter-firm reallocations towards more productive firms. The paper also shows how the aggregate industry productivity growth generated by the reallocations contributes to a welfare gain, thus highlighting a benefit from trade that has not been examined theoretically before. The paper adapts Hopenhayn's (1992a) dynamic industry model to monopolistic competition in a general equilibrium setting. In so doing, the paper provides an extension of Krugman's (1980) trade model that incorporates firm level productivity differences. Firms with different productivity levels coexist in an industry because each firm faces initial uncertainty concerning its productivity before making an irreversible investment to enter the industry. Entry into the export market is also costly, but the firm's decision to export occurs after it gains knowledge of its productivity.

In this article we investigate the importance of sunk costs, firm characteristics and spillovers from nearby exporters on a firm's decision to participate in exporting. The empirical analysis involves the estimation of a nonstructural, discrete choice, dynamic model with firm heterogeneity. By using panel data for Estonian companies from 1994 to 1999 we find that: (i) both sunk costs and observable firm characteristics are important determinants of export market participation; (ii) previous history matters, in that, if a firm has been exporting the previous period or the period before, it significantly increases the likelihood of the firm exporting in the current period; (iii) larger firms with high capital intensity and foreign ownership are more likely to be exporters; (iv) operating in an export-oriented industry increases a firm's likelihood of exporting.

Firms may face sunk costs when entering an export market. Previous studies have focused on global or country‐specific sunk export costs. This study analyses the importance of specific sunk export costs (defining ‘market’ as a product–country combination). We also study how market‐specific export costs can be affected by various kinds of learning and spillover effects. We use firm‐level panel data for Norwegian seafood exports distributed on products and countries. The results lend support to the hypothesis of market‐specific sunk costs. We also find evidence of learning and spillover effects, particularly within the same product group.

This article addresses sequential entry decisions in export markets. It focuses on externalities derived from previous export activity in countries close to those for which a potential entry decision is made (geographical spillovers) and externalities derived from previous presence of other firms in the same industry (industrial spillovers). The empirical analysis uses Spanish microdata for the period 2000鈥2010 in a firm decision model that also integrates country and industry characteristics. The results suggest that these two types of spillovers have a positive effect in explaining entry decisions in new export markets, though both are smaller in magnitude than the effects coming from previous presence in the same specific destination.

Motivated by empirical evidence I uncover on the dynamics of French firms exports, I offer a novel theory of trade frictions. Firms only export into markets where they have a contact. They directly search for new trading partners, but also use their exist- ing network of contacts to remotely search for new partners. I characterize the dynamic formation of an international network of exporters in this model. I structurally estimate this model on French data and confirm its predictions regarding (i) the cross- sectional distribution of the number of foreign markets accessed by exporters and (ii) the cross-sectional geographic distribution of exports.

Economies grow by upgrading the products they produce and export. The technology, capital, institutions, and skills needed to make newer products are more easily adapted from some products than from others. Here, we study this network of relatedness between products, or "product space," finding that more-sophisticated products are located in a densely connected core whereas less-sophisticated products occupy a less-connected periphery. Empirically, countries move through the product space by developing goods close to those they currently produce. Most countries can reach the core only by traversing empirically infrequent distances, which may help explain why poor countries have trouble developing more competitive exports and fail to converge to the income levels of rich countries.

Recent studies have argued that regional diversification emerges as a path-dependent process. Developed countries that industrialize do so first from core areas in an uneven industry space and have more opportunities to jump to new related industries and sustain economic growth than do developing countries that jump from peripheral areas. Can developing countries/regions jump further to break these path-dependent trajectories? Based on China鈥檚 export data, we show that regions can make such a jump by investing in extra-regional linkages and internal innovation. The effects of these two sets of variables vary across regions and industries.

A growing literature on evolutionary economic geography concludes that regional industrial evolution is path-dependent and is determined by the preexisting industries. This study more accurately calcu

As the exchange rate, foreign demand, and production costs evolve, domestic producers are continually faced with two choices: whether to be an exporter and, if so, how much to export. We develop a dynamic structural model of export supply that characterizes these two decisions. The model embodies plant-level heterogeneity in export profits, uncertainty about the determinants of future profits, and market entry costs for new exporters. Using a Bayesian Monte Carlo Markov chain estimator, we fit this model to plant-level panel data on three Colombian manufacturing industries. We obtain profit function and sunk entry cost coefficients, and use them to simulate export responses to shifts in the exchange-rate process and several types of export subsidies. In each case, the aggregate export response depends on entry costs, expectations about the exchange rate process, prior exporting experience, and producer heterogeneity. Export revenue subsidies are far more effective at stimulating exports than policies that subsidize entry costs.

This paper asks whether export spillovers influence the export behavior of French manufacturers. I use a database containing export flows by firm and importing country between 1986 and 1992. The decision to start exporting to a particular country is estimated using a logit model, controlling for the specific characteristics of firms, locations, countries and years. The export spillovers identified are industry- and/or destination-specific, and are computed at a very disaggregated geographical level. The results indicate that the pool of local exporters positively affects the decision to start exporting to a country. These effects are clearly destination-specific, and are larger for firms that export to remote markets.

Abstract This paper studies the importance of export spillovers in a firm's decision to enter specific export markets and extends the current state of the literature by assessing different mechanisms through which they may occur, namely (i) labour movement, (ii) intra-industry spillovers and (iii) inter-industry linkages. We do so by exploiting a unique data set covering the universe of manufacturing firms in Denmark for the period 1995–2006 which combines transaction-level export data, firm accounting data, employer–employee linked data and information from yearly input–output tables. We corroborate the literature on export spillovers by presenting robust evidence of destination-specific export spillovers. The results suggest that labour mobility as well as intra- and inter-industry linkages (backward linkages) are important channels for export spillovers, while presenting heterogeneous effects across firms of different size and export markets.

78 Spillovers among exporters can rationalize high and non-decreasing distance effects. 78 The spillover implies that the fixed costs decline in the number of exporters. 78 This magnifies the extensive margin and increases predicted distance effects. 78 A stronger spillover can rationalize non-decreasing distance effects. 78 One can microfound the spillover with a model of exporter networks.

Precise characterization of informational trade barriers is neither well documented nor understood. Using Russian customs data, we document that regional destination-specific export spillovers exist for developing countries, extending a result that was only known for developed countries. This result suggests behavior responding to a destination barrier. To account for this fact, we build on a monopolistic competition model of trade by postulating an externality in the international transaction of goods. We test the model’s prediction on region-level exports using Russian data and find improvement over gravity-type models without agglomeration. This finding has important development implications in that export policy that considers current trade partners may be more effective than policy that focuses only on the exporting country’s industries. Furthermore, our findings can be considered in the burgeoning literature refining transaction costs beyond the traditional iceberg cost.

经济发展是一个不断演化的过程,由于经济要素、发展环境的不同,不同区域经济发展模式的演化路径也存在差异。从要素、制度、关系三个维度构建区域经济发展模式类型划分的概念框架,根据三个维度指标的不同组合方式,将区域经济发展模式划分为资源—市场—内生型模式等8种类型;并以中国16种典型模式为例,分析各区域经济发展模式的演化及其趋同性。研究表明:1区域经济发展模式在路径依赖和路径创造的共同作用下实现动态演化。2中国各区域经济发展模式向更加注重人力资本等无形生产要素、市场力量和外生力量转变,总体上由"资源—政府—内生型"模式、"资源—政府—外生型"模式、"人力资本—政府—外生型"模式等模式向"人力资本—市场—外生型"模式演变。3中国各区域经济发展模式趋同性明显,表现为要素结构、市场化程度、内外生关系的趋同,以及时间和空间的趋同;经过多样化的发展和演化过程,各模式间的学习、融合加深,并走向"殊途同归"。

出口产品空间的演化影响地区的生产贸易与经济增长。产品空间比较优势理论认为地区已有产品能否跳跃至新产品与产品间的“邻近性”有关。从演化经济地理视角出发,建立认知邻近、社会邻近、制度邻近、组织邻近和地理邻近的多维邻近性研究框架,基于吴语区2002-2011年出口贸易数据,探究五类邻近性对产品空间演化的影响,并关注邻近性之间的交互作用。结果显示：认知邻近性、组织邻近性、制度邻近性、社会邻近性与地理邻近性均对出口产品空间演化有显著的促进作用,但各邻近性的影响能力存在差异。同时还发现社会邻近性与地理邻近性,以及地理邻近性与制度邻近性之间存在互补作用。研究可为位于产品空间“边缘区”的落后地区提供产业发展的新路径。