陈幺
, 赵振斌, 张铖, 郝亭
陕西师范大学旅游与环境学院,西安 710062
CHEN Yao, ZHAO Zhenbin, ZHANG Cheng, HAO Ting
通讯作者:
收稿日期: 2015-04-6
修回日期: 2015-08-19
网络出版日期: 2015-10-15
版权声明: 2015 《地理研究》编辑部 《地理研究》编辑部
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：陈幺（1989- ）,男,新疆乌鲁木齐人,硕士研究生,研究方向为GIS与社区旅游。E-mail: chenyao121314@sohu.com
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摘要
在与社区相关的开发或保护活动中,社区居民主观态度直接影响着规划项目可行性。探索适用的社区态度表达方法,成为社区有效参与规划决策的关键。利用参与式制图和半结构访谈的方法,对汉长安城遗址保护区9个村落的243位居民景观感知价值进行调查,采用热点分析、对应分析和相容度指标分析,揭示居民感知的景观价值空间构成,景观价值与土地利用的对应关系及其与现有搬迁保护方案的相容度,在此基础上识别出4种社区态度类型区域。研究表明：① 基于相容度反映的汉长安城遗址社区态度具有地点依赖性,这种态度的空间差异为社区规划管理、矛盾冲突管控提供了更细致的社会数据支持;② 案例社区居民景观感知价值在空间分布上具有规律性,并与一定的物质景观基础（土地利用）相关联,这种关联性的认识,有利于解释景观变化可能产生的社会现象;③ 参与式制图结合景观价值的调查为感知景观的研究提供了有效方法,通过制图可视化,统计分析和指标模型构建,能够揭示景观感知价值的空间结构特征。
关键词：
Abstract
In the development or protection programmes related to local community, the subjective attitudes of community people influence the feasibility of planned projects directly. Finding an adaptive approach for the community opinion expression and communication with other interest groups is the key to effective community participation. Using participatory mapping technique and semi-structure interview, we investigated the perceived landscape values of 243 residents in 9 villages in Han Chang'an City Historical Site area. With the hotspot analysis, correspondence analysis and value compatibility index analysis, the mapping data and interviews were analyzed, and some features of the community landscape value were revealed, including landscape value spatial pattern, correspondence relationship of landscape value to landuse and compatibility of landscape value with the present village relocation programme. Based on those analyses, 4 potential community attitude type zones in the study area were distinguished. The results show that: ① the community attitudes indicated by compatibility of Han Chang'an City Historical Site are location-specific, and the spatial differentiation of the subjective attitudes towards local development or protection in an area provide more detailed social data for community related spatial planning, management and conflict control; ② there exist correspondence relations between the community perceived landscape values and landscape physical elements (landuse) in the case region, which will be conducive to explain social phenomena caused by landscape possible changes; ③participatory mapping and landscape value method provide a practical tool for studying perceived landscape of local community people, and cartographic visualization, statistical analysis and index modeling can be useful for revealing the spatial pattern of the landscape values.
Keywords：
城镇化、旅游开发、移民搬迁和资源保护正在使得中国乡村聚落发生快速变化[1,2]。在这一变化过程中,乡村社区成为居民与其他利益群体博弈的场所,矛盾冲突时有发生[3,4]。虽然在与社区相关的开发或保护项目中,社区参与受到越来越多的重视,但由于居民处于相对弱势,且缺乏与其他群体一致的观点、语言,意见表达存在诸多障碍,导致有效参与难以实现[4]。如何从技术层面建立社区意见表达的平台,促进不同利益群体间的相互理解,是社区参与面临的问题。
GIS由于其强大的数据存储、分析、展示功能被认为是辅助空间规划、管理的有力工具,也被认为能够支持社区参与[5]。然而长期以来,GIS主要依赖遥感和其他客观观测数据,研究环境、生态等物质景观的特征及其变化（如土地利用与覆盖变化）,而难以将与人的主观活动有关的现象（如价值、态度、偏好和经验）纳入分析范畴[6,7]。而事实上,在与社区相关的开发或保护项目中,社区居民的态度往往是引起社会矛盾与冲突的直接因素,也是项目成败的关键[8,9]。如果GIS能够将社区居民的主观活动纳入其分析范畴,将会大大增强其对复杂社会现象的解释能力。因此,探索一种基于GIS的社区主观活动表征和分析方法,对促进社区参与和区域和谐发展有重要意义[10]。
景观价值分析为了解社区主观态度提供了一种途径。这种分析的理论基础是人与景观交互关系理论（transactionalism）,该理论认为人作为积极的景观因子与景观互动（思考、体验和活动）,在一定的社会文化背景下,通过感知赋予景观价值。反过来,人又依附于这种景观与价值体系,籍由实现个人效能,身份认同,并影响人的态度选择与行为取向[11]。由于景观价值将人的价值赋予（value assignment）与空间联系起来,反映人的主观重要性及其空间分布,因此,从空间规划、管理的角度来说,有利于揭示某给定项目的社会适宜性（social suitability）,帮助理解公众对给定项目的态度和潜在的不同利益群体的冲突点[12]。
景观价值分析技术（landscape value method, LVM）是利用公众参与的地理信息技术（PPGIS）,对公众感知的景观价值进行制图,分析其空间特征,从而找到可能的与景观价值相协调的土地利用方式[12]。过去十多年,景观价值分析被用于多种自然资源保护领域,提升规划管理质量,如国家森林管理[13,14];国家公园和保护区管理[15,16];海岸带管理[17,18];城市公园[19];河流湿地[20]等。Brown等在该领域做出了有益探索。在总结前人研究基础上,Brown归纳总结出自然景观（森林、国家公园）所包含的美学、经济、游憩、环境支持等12种基本景观价值类型,使得景观价值类型更全面,具有了一定的普适性[21]。近年来,Brown等用景观价值权衡的方法探讨了美国Mt.Hood国家森林公园两种机动车旅游项目的空间布局适宜性问题,从空间上对管理部门的旅游规划的合理性进行了评价[22]。
本文利用PPGIS和景观价值分析方法,选择汉长安城遗址保护区乡村社区为研究案例,探讨乡村社区景观价值构成及景观价值与社区搬迁方案间的相容度,由此获得居民态度的空间特征,为案例地遗址保护和社区搬迁规划的顺利实施提供参考。
汉长安城遗址位于西安城区西北部,总面积65 km2,其中城垣内面积约36 km2。遗址区包括城垣、城门、宫殿、园囿、市场等众多地面或地下遗迹,是中国迄今规模最大、保存最为完整、遗迹最为丰富的都城遗址,1961年被国务院列为第一批重点文物保护单位。目前,区内已开辟未央宫遗址公园、汉城湖遗址公园供旅游休闲所用。2011年7月8日,陕西省政府通过《汉长安城遗址保护总体规划》,计划于“十二五”期间进一步加强遗址核心区土地回收、村庄搬迁和居民安置工作,实施遗址本体保护工程,建设国家级的大遗址保护特区。2012年3月,国家文物局将汉长安城未央宫遗址列入跨国联合申报“丝绸之路”世界文化遗产项目大名单。由于申遗及整体保护的需要,《汉长安城遗址保护总体规划》开始启动,规划第一期项目于2012年10月底开始第一批村庄搬迁,范围为未央宫遗址公园周边的9个村落,搬迁村民集中安置。土地回收后,以未央宫遗址为核心建设更大规模的遗址公园,并与南部的城墙、城门一起进行展示。
汉长安城遗址区域历史悠久,自古就有人居住。目前其城垣区域内分布着55个行政村,57600余人（2013年统计数据）。1949年以来,由于保护限制,遗址区基础设施落后,与外围西安城区快速发展形成显著差别。遗址区乡村特征明显,农家乐休闲、房屋租赁、土地出租、农业种植成为居民主要经济来源。当地居民多世代衍息于此,对其长期生活的地方有着特殊和浓厚的感知。本文的调查范围是第一批搬迁的周家河湾村、天禄村、卢家口村、大刘寨村、西马寨村、东南马寨村、东张村、东叶寨村、西叶寨村9个行政村,分布于遗址城垣区的西南部（图1）。对这些村落居民景观感知价值的研究,有利于政府和规划管理部门理解社区意愿,为大遗址保护特区的建设提供社区支持基础。
本文采用参与式制图（participatory mapping）[22]结合半结构化访谈的方法获取数据。这种方法的核心是要求受访者在预先准备的调查地图上用已经编号的标记点标记对自己有某种价值的地方,并叙述原因。调查工具包括一张1
课题组成员分别于2012年7月、9月前往汉长安城遗址区的西马寨村和大刘寨村进行了预调研,对测量工具进行测试和修改。并于2012年10月在即将搬迁的9个行政村正式开始调研工作。调查采用复合抽样设计选择访谈对象。首先按照村落规模的大小,分别分配给9个村庄30至40个抽样指标,然后采用立意抽样（purposive sampling）[23]获取样本。样本的选取准则为：第一,以长期居住此地的当地居民为主要调查对象,注意人口学特征构成的均衡性;第二,调查样本相对均匀地分布于每个调查村落的不同位置。调查采用入户访谈的方式进行,本文第三作者的家居调查,为调查工作的开展提供了便利。
调查过程中,首先给受访者展示地图,要求受访者在图上确定方位,找出其所属村子的位置,如果有困难,调查人员帮助介绍地图信息和主要地物标志,帮助受访者建立空间概念;第二,向受访者介绍6种价值的含义。要求受访者在图上用标记点标出对自己来说有价值的地方,每个价值类型标记1个点;第三,针对每个贴在图上的标记点,要求受访者简单叙述选择这一地方的原因,调查者记录主要访谈内容;第四,要求受访者描述现行搬迁保护方案对其所标记价值的影响。经过一个半月的调研,共获得有效居民填图及访谈记录243份,有效调查记录相对均匀地分布于9个村落（最多35份,最少24份）。调查产生点状图形数据1095个,包括游憩价值231个,风景价值224个,文化价值202个,经济价值161,成就价值158个,精神价值119个。
（1）热点分析（hot spot analysis）。用于发现居民景观感知价值的空间分布特征。基于ArcGIS软件将被访者标记的6种价值点进行数字化,以表格的形式导出所有点的坐标,利用CrimeStat软件,选择最邻近距离层次聚类（nearest neighbor hierarchical clustering）进行热点分析[24]。热点反映了景观价值的空间聚集状况和居民的共同关切。
（2）点密度制图。对离散的专题价值点进行密度估计,获取平滑、连续的数据,用以进行对应分析和相容度分析。使用ArcGIS软件中的核密度（kernel density）工具[20],以景观价值点权重为输入字段,并取默认值1（点的权重相等）,通过实验并参照相关的研究[18],设置输出栅格大小为50 m,搜索半径为500 m,生成6个专题价值的栅格密度图层。
（3）对应分析。用于分析景观感知价值与景观客观要素在空间分布上的相互关系,辅助解释相容度的空间特征。首先,利用Spot卫星影像,解译出研究区8种土地利用类型。然后,将土地利用类型图与核密度栅格图层叠加,使用ArcGIS软件中的区域统计工具,统计8种土地利用类型中的6个专题价值的密度值。利用SPSS软件进行对应分析,并生成对应分析散点图。
（4）相容度分析。构建相容度指数（landscape value compatibility index,LVCI）来揭示社区景观价值与给定规划、管理项目或相关政策的总体相容情况,用于判断社区态度及其空间分布特征。相容度的计算公式如下（计算时以栅格为单位）：
式中,LVCI代表某栅格的相容度取值;R代表某栅格价值密度聚合值;Rmax代表所有栅格中最高密度聚合值;n表示栅格中拥有的景观价值类型数;Ci表示第i类景观价值与规划、管理项目的相容系数,取-1或1;Vi代表第i类景观价值在栅格中的密度值。
在入户调查过程中,要求受访者描述现行搬迁保护方案对其所标记价值的影响,了解他们对于搬迁和遗址保护的看法。通过分析访谈内容,综合判断确定社区居民6种景观价值与搬迁保护方案的相容系数如表1所示。
表1 研究区域社区景观价值与搬迁保护方案的相容关系
Tab. 1 The compatibility relations between the community landscape values and the village relocation project
| 景观价值 | 相容系数(Ci) | 说 明 |
|---|---|---|
| 风景价值 | +1 | 搬迁建设有利于风景保护,就近安置不影响居民的利用 |
| 游憩价值 | +1 | 搬迁建设有利于游憩活动开展,就近安置不影响居民利用 |
| 文化价值 | +1 | 搬迁保护有利于历史文化的保护,增强居民的文化认同 |
| 经济价值 | -1 | 搬迁使原有就业机会和经济来源丧失,景观价值与搬迁保护相抵触 |
| 成就价值 | -1 | 搬迁使个人财产、家庭住所及个人身份认同要素损失,景观价值与搬迁保护相抵触 |
| 精神价值 | -1 | 搬迁使得个人或集体地方信仰、历史记忆、场所感遭受破坏,景观价值与搬迁保护相抵触 |
调查期间共获取了243份有效调查问卷。从样本构成来看,男女性别比例分别占47%和53%,基本均衡;家庭月收入在3000元及其以下的调查对象占78.8%;年龄构成上,30岁以上的调查对象占84.2%,45岁以上的调查对象占55%;74%的调查对象的职业为务农;受访的当地居民占87%,外来居民仅占13%;受教育程度以初中及其以下为主,占76.4%;居住时间长达20年以上的居民占81.6%。
从价值点的分布来看,总体分布于所调查9个村落周围,且自西向东形成若干聚集区域（图3）。① 在周家河湾村附近形成一阶热点区4个,并形成二阶热点区1个。周家河湾村居民相传为明朝将军周西渠后裔,世代居住于此,且村旁的直城门遗址为汉时期“丝绸之路”的起点。公元前138年,张骞受汉武帝派遣,从直城门出汉长安城向西进发。当地居民对历史和地方的认同感强,认为价值重要。② 在石渠阁、天禄阁一带形成一阶热点区3个,并形成二阶热点区1个。天禄阁、石渠阁为西汉时期的国家档案馆与图书馆,西汉学者刘向曾在此校书。现在的天禄阁只留下了台基,台上修有刘向祠,具有重要的历史文化价值。此外该区域的天禄阁小学是社区重要的教育资源,也是感知价值密度高的原因之一。③ 石化大道一线的北徐寨村和西查寨村附近十字路口各形成一阶热点区1个,是社区商服设施集中区域,具有一定的经济价值。④ 在未央宫遗址公园附近形成一阶热点区25个,并生成二阶热点区2个,集聚程度很高。未央宫为西汉王朝的权利中心,是汉长安城遗址展示的核心,文化价值高。同时这一区域已经开辟成开放式遗址公园,是居民日常散步、会友、下棋、甩鞭、拉琴、唱曲、遛鸟等游憩休闲活动的重要场所,具有较高的休闲价值。再者,未央宫前殿遗址周围绿化程度较高,因此具有一定的风景价值。未央宫遗址是调查区域中最重要的地上遗迹分布区,在一定程度上已成为当地人的感情寄托。居民表示他们从小在此玩耍,未央宫前殿的高大土台已经深深融入当地人的孩童记忆当中。且每过数年,散布于各地的“刘氏”宗族后裔会在未央宫举行较大规模的祭祀活动,这里具有不可替代的精神价值,地方的认同感强。⑤ 东南马寨、西马寨、东张村一带形成一阶热点区4个,东叶、西叶寨村生成一阶热点区2个。这一区域与未央宫遗迹集中分布区稍远,农田、村落、住宅等代表的成就价值、经济价值成为主要价值类型。⑥ 汉城湖一带生成一阶热点区9个,并生成二阶热点区1个。汉城湖原为汉代长安城的漕运河,北岸保留有汉城墙遗址,于2005年开辟为汉城湖遗址公园,并于2010年获批成为国家级水利风景区,风景价值高,同时这一区域也是居民经常开展休闲活动的场所,具有较高的休闲价值。⑦ 调查区南部的魏家村生成一阶热点区4个,并生成二阶热点区1个,内有大型国亨批发市场,经济价值显著。⑧ 调查区西南汉城墙遗址附近生成一阶热点区1个,这一地段汉城墙地面遗迹保留最为完整,具有很高的考古、历史研究价值,另外在汉城墙附近,有很多居民的祖坟分布于此,每逢清明等节日当地人在此进行祭拜,因此该地方具有特殊性。
本文利用遥感数据,解译出耕地、水域、商服用地、住宅用地、绿地、交通用地、遗迹保护用地和其他用地8种土地利用类型,分析其与6个景观价值的空间分布对应关系。根据散点离原点的距离和散点间的距离来考察两类变量的联系,由图4可见6种景观价值与土地利用类型有多种对应关系,但也各有侧重。6种景观价值中,经济价值位于第一象限,可以看出居民感知的具有较高经济价值的地方与现阶段的土地利用类型中的交通用地、商服用地联系紧密,如交通用地中的石化大道一线,商服用地中具有代表性的魏家村国亨批发市场等,居民在这里可以获取土地出租收益和就业的经济收入。成就价值位于第二象限,主要与住宅用地、商服用地和其他用地相联系。房屋是居民祖居建筑或由于家庭扩大,在村子周围新建的居住建筑,由于中国农村有“赚钱盖房”的社会心理,房屋对调查区域各村落居民来说不仅有“家”的含义,更是个人成就和财富的反映。遗址保护与村落搬迁导致的住宅拆除,引起居民物质和心理两个方面的复杂反应,因此成为居民成就价值感知的焦点。商服用地多用于经营商业、仓储、运输等行业,是居民个人或集体土地,并产生显著经济收益,也成为成就价值的感知类型。精神价值和文化价值处于第三象限,精神价值方面,住宅用地与精神价值相对应,与住宅的“家”的认知是分不开的,家成为个人不可侵犯的场所。耕地与精神价值关联多缘于老年人对土地的复杂心理,调研中,老年居民对搬迁有隐约的恐惧感,访谈中经常听到“没有土地,叫花子都当不成”、“农民不能离开土地”的言语,反映出传统农民与土地的特殊心理联系。另外,分布于农田中的祖坟也被居民认为是精神依托,这成为耕地与精神价值密切相关的另一重要因素。调查区域内的遗迹保护用地指有遗迹存于地表或探明宫殿基址的区域。文化价值的点多被贴在保护用地周围。但是,由于整个汉长安城区域都属于保护范围,因此部分居民根据自身的理解,也将历史文化价值赋予耕地之上。游憩价值和风景价值分布于第四象限,对应的土地利用类型为绿地和水域,居民认为汉城湖遗址公园（水域）和一些树木多的地方（绿地）风景好,有益于开展游憩活动。
图4 景观价值与土地利用对应分析
Fig. 4 Correspondence analysis of landscape valuesand landuse types
相容度反映社区居民感知的6种景观价值与搬迁保护方案间的综合相容关系,从而帮助判断社区居民对搬迁保护方案所持有的态度及其空间变化特征。由图5可见,相容度从-1.50~10.00分为20个等级,在整个研究区内形成明显的空间分异特征：第一,形成正向相容度分布中心。未央宫遗址公园的相容度大于4.00,这一区域以保护用地和绿地为主,风景价值、休闲价值、历史文化3种正向景观价值在此集中分布,形成高值中心。汉城湖遗址公园一带也形成了正向相容度中心（2.75~3.91）,形成原因与未央宫遗址一致。第二,形成了负向相容度分布中心。在遗址区中南部的东叶寨、西叶寨、东张村、魏家村等地相容度为负值（-0.78~-1.50）,表现为不相容,并形成中心。由于这一区域处于西部未央宫遗址和东部汉城湖公园之间,地上遗迹分布较少,主要分布着居民住宅、农田和商服用地,这些用地类型承载的景观价值多与搬迁保护有负向相容关系;石化大道一线的南、北玉丰村和南、北徐村等重要交通节点附近,相容度也出现了负值（-0.78~-0.24）,这些区域属于地方商业中心,分布商服用地,普遍具有负向的经济价值和成就价值。第三,形成了相容度的正向低值区域。在两个正向相容度中心外围,形成了相容度的正向低值区域（0.09~0.98）。相容度低值区域分两种类型,一种如汉城湖外围区域,由于感知价值点少,导致相容度低值;另一种如周家河湾村、天禄村、卢家口村、汉城墙一带,这些区域形成9个一级感知热点,由于土地利用类型从保护用地、绿地逐渐过渡到住宅用地、交通用地和耕地等类型,正负向景观价值混合更替,相容度出现低值区域。从相容度可以分辨出4种潜在的社区态度分布区域：未央宫遗址公园和汉城湖遗址公园以支持为主的态度区域;东叶寨、西叶寨、东张村、魏家村以及石化大道沿线以抵触为主的态度区域;未央宫遗址公园外围属于支持与抵触混合态度区域;其他的低值区域为态度不明显区域。
图5 景观价值相容度空间分布
Fig. 5 The spatial pattern of landscape value compatibility index
中国历史悠久,文物遗存丰富,文物遗址的保护和社区发展之间的矛盾日益显著。长期以来,自上而下的保护理念,将文物遗址当做更大区域内的价值承载物,忽视了社区居民的诉求,导致了文物遗址区域传统社会、文化乃至社区心理结构的破坏,引起诸多社会问题。寻找一种社区态度和意见的表达方法,对于促进社区参与保护工作,协调保护与发展的关系具有重要的意义。本文基于PPGIS和景观价值分析技术来了解案例社区居民态度构成,研究工作具有以下特点：第一,基于PPGIS的调查要求社区居民参与到数据的收集甚至分析当中,实际上形成了一种社区参与技术平台,有利于社区意见的表达和不同利益群体间的沟通;第二,基于空间分析,本文不仅揭示了居民对搬迁方案的态度,更为重要的是,揭示了态度的空间结构;第三,基于多种景观价值的相容度分析,可以帮助了解社区态度及其空间变化背后的因素,帮助理解社区诉求。
从研究结果看,居民感知的景观价值在空间上属于聚集分布形式,主要围绕居住村落分布,并向外围扩散,在一些地点形成了价值的热点,如9个村落周围。感知价值是居民与环境长期互动的结果,居住村落与居民关系密切,因此,成为地方感知价值的集中分布区域[7]。另外,一些特殊地方,是当地环境的标志物,影响居民地方感的形成,也成为感知热点,如未央宫遗址公园区域。研究区土地利用类型与其所承载的景观价值间存在内在联系,6种景观价值与土地利用类型有多种对应关系,但也各有侧重。承载于不同土地利用方式上的景观价值影响居民的地方感、个人认同和社区认同,因此土地利用变化引起的景观价值变化就可能受到社区抵制,并导致态度冲突和社会矛盾。这种规划管理—土地利用—景观价值—态度行为的逻辑关系为认识社区问题提供了新的思路。通过相容度分析,揭示了支持态度为主、抵触态度为主、混合态度和态度不明显4种态度类型区域。学者们通过不同的方法揭示社区居民的态度感知,形成了不同的理论。如Doxey的愤怒指数模型（irridex model）[25]认为社区居民对于旅游开发的态度随开发程度由欢喜逐渐转变为对抗。但这种笼统的态度分析并不能为空间规划管理提供帮助。本文基于景观价值分析揭示的社区态度存在明显的空间分异特征,说明社区对于搬迁保护方案的支持或抵触并不是笼统的,而是因地而异的,这使得规划管理者在实施搬迁项目过程中,可以采取针对性的空间调控策略,抑制社会矛盾的产生。在很多情况下,社区开发或保护活动并不涉及整体搬迁,这种情况下,社区态度的空间特征的把握,可以帮助实现开发或保护项目空间布局的社会因素权衡,提升规划决策的社会效益。
相容度分布受6种景观价值与搬迁保护方案的各自相容关系和空间分布特征影响。从对应分析结果可知,研究区中文化价值、风景价值、休闲价值主要分布于保护用地、绿地和水域三种用地类型,而这三种用地类型在空间上具有聚集分布的特征,集中于未央宫遗址公园和汉城湖遗址公园,使得正向相容度空间集中程度高,取值较大。而经济价值、成就价值和精神价值对应于商服用地、交通用地、住宅用地、耕地和其他用地,这些用地类型在空间上具有分散分布的特点,使得负向相容度取值的绝对值较低。虽然正向和负向相容度绝对取值的大小有所差别,但总体上反映了社区态度的空间变化特征。
本文得出三个主要结论：第一,基于相容度反映的汉长安城遗址社区态度具有地点依赖性,可区分为4种态度类型区域。这种态度的空间差异为社区规划管理、矛盾冲突管控提供了更细致的社会数据支持。第二,案例社区居民景观感知价值在空间分布上具有规律性,并与一定的物质景观基础相关联。对于某一区域的这种关联性的认识,有利于解释景观变化可能产生的社会现象。第三,参与式制图结合景观价值的调查为感知景观的研究提供了有效方法,通过制图可视化,统计分析和指标模型构建,能够揭示景观感知价值的空间结构特征。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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城市化对乡村社区地方感的影响分析: 以北京三个乡村社区为例 .
本文通过选取受城市化影响程度不同的三个乡村社区,调查居民日常行为空间的变化过程以及对地方感的影响,发现地方感的差异不仅与空间重构导致的居民社区依附程度差异有关,同时还与社区"公共领域"有关.本文在此基础上提出强化地方感的措施,以更好地发挥农民建设新农村的主体作用,促进乡村建设.
Urbanization impacts on sense of place for rural communities: A case study of three villages in Beijing.
本文通过选取受城市化影响程度不同的三个乡村社区,调查居民日常行为空间的变化过程以及对地方感的影响,发现地方感的差异不仅与空间重构导致的居民社区依附程度差异有关,同时还与社区"公共领域"有关.本文在此基础上提出强化地方感的措施,以更好地发挥农民建设新农村的主体作用,促进乡村建设.
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乡村农户适应旅游发展的模式及影响机制: 以秦岭金丝峡景区为例 .
社会—生态系统理论为旅游影响与旅游可持续发展研究提供了新的分析思路,已成为国际上旅游研究的重要理论工具。从社会—生态系统适应性出发,借鉴脆弱性研究中的适应性理论,构建农户旅游发展适应性分析框架,以陕西秦岭金丝峡景区为案例,通过实地调查和访谈获取数据,较系统地研究了农户适应旅游发展的行为模式、影响因素及机制。主要结论包括：① 旅游业推动小河流域农业商品化,但并未促进农业增长,相反农业生产功能大幅衰退;农户以旅游经营和常年务工作为主要对策,形成了旅游专营型、主导型、均衡兼营型及务工主导型四种适应效果差异显著的适应模式。② 农户适应旅游发展的影响因素包括认知因素(机会和政策认知)、劳动力(劳动力总量、聘用人数)、地理区位(可达性与区位优势度)、自然资本(耕地面积)、物质资产(房屋类型) 和社会资本(邻里关系) 。③ 旅游开发导致的自然生计资源缺失与农户生存理性之间的矛盾是适应发生的根源,社区补偿制度是重要推动力量;农户社会理性与经济理性偏好决定着其适应模式选择;适应效果受适应力驱动因素影响。最后对旅游影响的社会—生态整合研究有效性进行讨论,并提出后续深化研究的方向和本研究的实践启示。
Exploring conditions, determinants and mechanisms of rural households' adaptability to tourism development: A case study of Jinsixia in Qinling Mountains.
社会—生态系统理论为旅游影响与旅游可持续发展研究提供了新的分析思路,已成为国际上旅游研究的重要理论工具。从社会—生态系统适应性出发,借鉴脆弱性研究中的适应性理论,构建农户旅游发展适应性分析框架,以陕西秦岭金丝峡景区为案例,通过实地调查和访谈获取数据,较系统地研究了农户适应旅游发展的行为模式、影响因素及机制。主要结论包括：① 旅游业推动小河流域农业商品化,但并未促进农业增长,相反农业生产功能大幅衰退;农户以旅游经营和常年务工作为主要对策,形成了旅游专营型、主导型、均衡兼营型及务工主导型四种适应效果差异显著的适应模式。② 农户适应旅游发展的影响因素包括认知因素(机会和政策认知)、劳动力(劳动力总量、聘用人数)、地理区位(可达性与区位优势度)、自然资本(耕地面积)、物质资产(房屋类型) 和社会资本(邻里关系) 。③ 旅游开发导致的自然生计资源缺失与农户生存理性之间的矛盾是适应发生的根源,社区补偿制度是重要推动力量;农户社会理性与经济理性偏好决定着其适应模式选择;适应效果受适应力驱动因素影响。最后对旅游影响的社会—生态整合研究有效性进行讨论,并提出后续深化研究的方向和本研究的实践启示。
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城市拆迁中的利益冲突及解决途径 .https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-5379.2006.02.020 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
从城市拆迁产生利益冲突的相关利益人入手，对拆迁中涉及的各个相关利益者进行利益分析，分析了产生冲突的原因所在，提出了应如何保障各方特别是被拆迁人的利益。
Interest conflicts in resettlement programs in urban areas and the possible approaches to their solution. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-5379.2006.02.020 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
从城市拆迁产生利益冲突的相关利益人入手，对拆迁中涉及的各个相关利益者进行利益分析，分析了产生冲突的原因所在，提出了应如何保障各方特别是被拆迁人的利益。
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| [4] |
城市拆迁决策过程中公民参与的困境及其突破 .Dilemmas of civil participation and its breakthrough in the urban house demolition decision. |
| [5] |
Geo-information tools for participatory spatial planning: Fulfilling the criteria for good governance. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2011.07.007 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The last few decades have seen increasing attempts to foster ‘collaborative’ and ‘participatory’ approaches to spatial planning and decision-making, with a more sophisticated conceptualisation of the contested term, participation. Participatory, ‘bottom-up’ geo-information technologies have been concurrently developing and these are expected to strengthen participatory spatial planning; important among these has been the transformation of conventional mapping and GIS tools into Participatory GIS (PGIS). In this paper we explore the potential contributions of participatory geo-information tools towards participatory spatial planning, in terms of the principles and criteria of good governance. We discuss five fundamental principles of ‘good’ governance: accountability, legitimacy, respect, equity, and competence, and the potential of geo-information tools to contribute to, and detract from, such principles; although we focus especially on participation and the recognition and validation of local knowledge. We derive criteria for the five principles, and we identify a range of evaluation questions which can be operationalised so as to interrogate the criteria for judging the contribution of participatory tools and participatory spatial planning activities. We conclude by summarily assessing the potentials of participatory geo-information tools, particularly participatory mobile GIS, participatory 3-dimensional modelling, and visualisation features in PGIS.
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| [6] |
Grounded visualization: integrating the analysis of qualitative and quanitative data through grounded theory and visualization. |
| [7] |
Public participation GIS (PPGIS) for regional and environmental planning: Reflections on a decade of empirical research. |
| [8] |
Methods for identifying land use conflict potential using participatory mapping. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.11.007 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The number of public participation GIS (PPGIS) applications to inform local and regional land, use planning has increased significantly over the last decade. An important rationale for undertaking, participatory mapping is to anticipate and identify areas of potential land use conflict. To date, there, has not been a systematic evaluation of methods for identifying land use conflict potential with PPGIS data. This study uses data from a regional planning study in Australia to describe and evaluate alternative methods for identifying land use conflict potential. A simple, two dimensional model of land use conflict is presented and operationalized with spatial data to provide a heuristic device for regional land-use planning practitioners. Land use conflict is posited to derive from differences in landscape values and land use preferences that can be formulated into different conflict indices and presented in maps. We demonstrate application of the conflict mapping model using residential and industrial development in the region as examples. The spatial distribution of landscape values, values compatibility scoring, land use preference differences, and a combined values and preferences scoring index are all viable methods for identifying and mapping the potential for land use conflict. The preferred method for assessing the potential for land use conflict is one that integrates two dimensions: land use preference directionality (supporting or opposing) and the importance or intensity of landscape values. We discuss the strengths and limitations of each conflict mapping method.
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| [9] |
The social landscape of planning: integrating social and perceptual research with spatial planning information. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.01.015 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
During the past decades, there have been tremendous strides in the sophistication and power of analyzing, displaying, and interpreting spatial information, particularly Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The vast majority of this work has focused on the physical landscape where increasingly complex models are able to predict, describe, and assess the implications of future planning issues related to watersheds, urban growth, and other planning issues. However, this increasing sophistication in the power of landscape modeling remains disconnected from the sociopolitical realities of the communities and regions which are the subject of these studies. There is a research need to integrate public perceptions and attitudes with the type of information typically found in a landscape assessment. This essay reviews the different types of social and perceptual research that landscape planners have conducted and concludes with recommendations for research avenues that are necessary to describe the social landscape in spatial terms. Landscape planners in the future will need to know as much about the social landscape as they do the physical landscape before embarking on planning actions.
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| [10] |
Public participation geographic information systems: A literature review and framework. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2006.00702.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) pertains to the use of geographic information systems (GIS) to broaden public involvement in policymaking as well as to the value of GIS to promote the goals of nongovernmental organizations, grassroots groups, and community-based organizations. The article first traces the social history of PPGIS. It then argues that PPGIS has been socially constructed by a broad set of actors in research across disciplines and in practice across sectors. This produced and reproduced concept is then explicated through four major themes found across the breadth of the PPGIS literature: place and people, technology and data, process, and outcome and evaluation. The themes constitute a framework for evaluating current PPGIS activities and a roadmap for future PPGIS research and practice.
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| [11] |
Perceived land use patterns and landscape values. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02275264 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Land use patterns and land form are important sources of information that contribute to the formation of landscape perceptions and values. This paper discusses three concepts of human-landscape relationships: the human as an agent of biological and physical impacts on the landscape; the human as a static receiver and processor of information from the landscape; and the human as an active participant in the landscape —thinking, feeling and acting — a transactional concept. A model of the transactional concept and of human perception and response is presented along with a conjectural example of human-landscape transactions. Three empirical research projects are presented to illustrate varying relationships between and among humans and landscapes. Variations in human experiences, needs and desires, personal utility functions for the use of the landscape, and socio-cultural contexts are suggested as mediating variables on perceived values and human responses. The importance of landscape values information to planning and management activities is discussed.
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| [12] |
Mapping landscape values and development preferences: A method for tourism and residential planning. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.562 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This paper presents a method for measuring and analysing tourism and residential development options using survey research techniques that spatially locate public-perceived landscape values and development preferences. Using survey data from Kangaroo Island, South Australia, landscape values and preferences for tourism development are analysed to determine the relative strength of landscape values as predictors of place-specific development preferences. Results indicate that tourism development preferences are most closely associated with recreation, economic and scenic landscape values whereas residential development preferences are most closely associated with recreation, economic and learning values. Preferences for ‘no development’ are most closely associated with wilderness, therapeutic and intrinsic landscape values. A simple development index is generated from the spatial data that ranges from positive (acceptable development) to negative (no development) values. The potential benefits of the method for land-use planning processes are discussed.
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| [13] |
An application of Social Values for Ecosystem Services (SolVES) to three national forests in Colorado and Wyoming. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.07.008 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Despite widespread recognition that social-value information is needed to inform stakeholders and decision makers regarding trade-offs in environmental management, it too often remains absent from ecosystem service assessments. Although quantitative indicators of social values need to be explicitly accounted for in the decision-making process, they need not be monetary. Ongoing efforts to map such values demonstrate how they can also be made spatially explicit and relatable to underlying ecological information. We originally developed Social Values for Ecosystem Services (SolVES) as a tool to assess, map, and quantify nonmarket values perceived by various groups of ecosystem stakeholders. With SolVES 2.0 we have extended the functionality by integrating SolVES with Maxent maximum entropy modeling software to generate more complete social-value maps from available value and preference survey data and to produce more robust models describing the relationship between social values and ecosystems. The current study has two objectives: (1) evaluate how effectively the value index, a quantitative, nonmonetary social-value indicator calculated by SolVES, reproduces results from more common statistical methods of social-survey data analysis and (2) examine how the spatial results produced by SolVES provide additional information that could be used by managers and stakeholders to better understand more complex relationships among stakeholder values, attitudes, and preferences. To achieve these objectives, we applied SolVES to value and preference survey data collected for three national forests, the Pike and San Isabel in Colorado and the Bridger–Teton and the Shoshone in Wyoming. Value index results were generally consistent with results found through more common statistical analyses of the survey data such as frequency, discriminant function, and correlation analyses. In addition, spatial analysis of the social-value maps produced by SolVES provided information that was useful for e
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| [14] |
Using analyses of public value orientations, attitudes and preferences to inform national forest planning in Colorado and Wyoming. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.10.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Understanding public value orientations, attitudes and preferences towards national forests is a critical task for the USDA Forest Service (USFS) during the development of their forest plans. Social surveys are efficient and effective ways to generate this information from a representative sample of the larger public who may care about national forests but do not attend participatory events - t...
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| [15] |
Public participation GIS: A new method for national park planning. |
| [16] |
The natural area value scale: a new instrument for measuring natural area values. https://doi.org/10.1080/14486563.2004.10648594 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
At present there is no adequate means by which natural area planners and decision- makers can undertake a comprehensive and integrated assessment of individuals' values for natural areas. Although instrumental values can be measured in a number of ways, there exists no accepted mechanism in natural resource management planning through which intrinsic values can be measured for a large sample. In this article, we describe the Natural Area Value Scale (NAVS) which addresses this need. The NAVS has been designed to suit a general public sample, but also to have application across different population groups and resource types. The 20-item NAVS can measure, distinguish between and gauge the relative strengths of individuals' intrinsic, non-use and use values for nature. Use values have distinct recreation and non-recreation components. For a general population sample, the four value sub-scales have good reliability. Evidence for construct validity is given by the presence of expected correlations between the sub-scales, the verification of expected relationships between the relative sub-scale values for different population samples, and the verification of expected relationships between sub-scale values and management preferences. The NAVS also provided coherent results across two very different types of environments, forests and wetlands, as well as in circumstances involving endangered species.
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| [17] |
Social-ecological hotspots mapping: A spatial approach for identifying coupled social-ecological space. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.09.007 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">This paper advances the concept of a coupled social–ecological system (SES), where human and biophysical systems are closely linked, to examine and explain variations in landscape values perceived by people in their region. In this paper, we describe an approach that allows the mapping of SES by linking survey research with geographic information systems (GIS) to provide spatial representations of social and ecological system convergence. Using survey data that measured landscape values from multiple communities on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, we identify geographical areas where both human-perceived and physically measured ecological values overlap and are referred to as social–ecological “hotspots”. Community landscape values, collected as point data, were used to generate point density maps to produce hotspot surfaces for each value. These value surfaces were spatially cross-correlated with other communities’ value surfaces and with an ecological map layer (net primary productivity) to demonstrate social–ecological mapping. Moderate spatial cross-correlation coefficients were found between most landscape values by community with 18 hotspot surfaces pairings exhibiting strong positive spatial cross correlations. Moderately significant, positive linear relationships were found between perceived biological values and net primary productivity for three of six communities. The exploratory spatial analysis presented in this paper is a first step in identifying and describing the presence of SES in a regional context. We conclude the paper by discussing the potential managerial and ecological implications of coupled social–ecological systems including system resilience and vulnerability, and the limitations of the approach that need to be considered.</p>
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| [18] |
Mapping outdoor recreationists' perceived social values for ecosystem services at Hinchinbrook Island National Park, Australia. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.06.008 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Coastal ecosystems are increasingly faced with human impacts. To better understand these changing conditions, biophysical and economic values of nature have been used to prioritize spatial planning efforts and ecosystem-based management of human activities. Less is known, however, about how to characterize and represent non-material values in decision-making. We collected on-site and mailback s...
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| [19] |
Tools for mapping social values of urban woodlands and other green areas. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.03.003 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Since the social values of urban woodlands are not always sufficiently taken into account in decision-making on urban land-use and green space planning, new means of collecting the experienced values of urban green areas and integrating this information into the planning processes are needed. The main aim of this study was to develop a simple method to describe the experienced qualities of green areas for strategic green area planning purposes. In a postal survey conducted in Helsinki, Finland, general attitudes towards and benefits felt to be derived from green areas as well as site specific information about the experience values were gathered. Local residents were asked to identify, those areas on a map of the study area that had particular positive qualities, such as beautiful scenery, peace and quiet and the feeling of being in a forest as well as those areas with negative features. These results were compiled in map form using GIS software. The results highlight the most valued sites as well as problem areas within the study area. The most important features associated with favourite places were: tranquillity, the feeling of being in a forest, and naturalness. The results suggest that the method is communicative and relatively easy to use in both collaborative green area planning and land-use planning.</p>
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| [20] |
北京市绿带游憩空间分布特征及其成因 .
绿带是阻止城市蔓延、提高城市 生态安全格局的重要手段,其游憩开发能够为大都市游憩空间紧缺提供有效的解决途径。以北京市第二道绿带为研究区,以2013年绿带内6种类型游憩空间(共 448处)为研究对象,运用Kernel核密度算法等空间分析方法,从北京市绿带游憩空间的整体分布格局、规模容量特征和各类型游憩空间分布特征及成因三 个层面进行分析。主要结论:1从整体分布格局来看,北京市绿带内形成了若干游憩空间集聚区域,游憩空间结构出现"北密南疏"的整体特征;北部游憩空间集聚 程度高且分布连续成带,南部游憩空间集聚程度较低且分布离散成团;北部温榆河沿岸地区游憩空间大量集聚,成为绿带游憩空间结构的主要骨架。2从规模容量特 征来看,占地规模较大的游憩空间呈集聚分布,规模较小的游憩空间呈分散分布,绿带内已形成了6个由面积规模较大的游憩空间密集分布构成的热点区。3绿带内 6种类型游憩空间分布特征及成因表现为:绿带内的资源环境本底决定了既有吸引物游憩空间的空间特征;政策性规划引导郊野休闲公园空间分布相对均匀;重要水 系与运动健身游憩空间的空间分布高度关联;主题活动游憩空间更倾向于靠近主要交通干道;会议度假游憩空间与北京市地热资源分布契合度高;民俗体验游憩空间 大量分布在海淀区上庄水库周边。揭示了北京市绿带游憩空间布局情况,为中国绿带游憩体系的统筹建设、空间结构调整和布局优化提供了参考。
Spatial characteristics and causes of recreational space in the urban green belt of Beijing, China.
绿带是阻止城市蔓延、提高城市 生态安全格局的重要手段,其游憩开发能够为大都市游憩空间紧缺提供有效的解决途径。以北京市第二道绿带为研究区,以2013年绿带内6种类型游憩空间(共 448处)为研究对象,运用Kernel核密度算法等空间分析方法,从北京市绿带游憩空间的整体分布格局、规模容量特征和各类型游憩空间分布特征及成因三 个层面进行分析。主要结论:1从整体分布格局来看,北京市绿带内形成了若干游憩空间集聚区域,游憩空间结构出现"北密南疏"的整体特征;北部游憩空间集聚 程度高且分布连续成带,南部游憩空间集聚程度较低且分布离散成团;北部温榆河沿岸地区游憩空间大量集聚,成为绿带游憩空间结构的主要骨架。2从规模容量特 征来看,占地规模较大的游憩空间呈集聚分布,规模较小的游憩空间呈分散分布,绿带内已形成了6个由面积规模较大的游憩空间密集分布构成的热点区。3绿带内 6种类型游憩空间分布特征及成因表现为:绿带内的资源环境本底决定了既有吸引物游憩空间的空间特征;政策性规划引导郊野休闲公园空间分布相对均匀;重要水 系与运动健身游憩空间的空间分布高度关联;主题活动游憩空间更倾向于靠近主要交通干道;会议度假游憩空间与北京市地热资源分布契合度高;民俗体验游憩空间 大量分布在海淀区上庄水库周边。揭示了北京市绿带游憩空间布局情况,为中国绿带游憩体系的统筹建设、空间结构调整和布局优化提供了参考。
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| [21] |
Validation of a forest values typology for use in national forest planning. |
| [22] |
Values compatibility analysis: using public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) for decision support in national forest management. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12061-011-9072-x Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Abstract<br/>Human values are embedded in forest management decisions but are rarely systematically and explicitly included in the decision process. National legislation for public lands often provides conflicting goals but little guidance for agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service to operationalize public value preferences. The historical difficulty of integrating public values into forest management decisions includes the problems of measurement, aggregation, and tradeoff analysis. In this paper, we present a method for measuring and integrating spatially-explicit public values collected using public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) into a decision support framework we call values compatibility analysis (VCA). We provide a case study to demonstrate how spatially-explicit public values can be used to determine the compatibility of designating ATV/OHV routes on national forest land. The applications and limitations of VCA for decision support are elaborated and we conclude that an effective decision support framework should provide some degree of standardization, be broadly inclusive, and provide the opportunity to engage in systematic place-based value trade-off analyses.<br/>
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| [23] |
Place meanings surrounding an urban natural area: A qualitative inquiry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2011.04.002 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="abspara0010">This article describes a qualitative analysis of place-based meanings held by members of a conservation advocacy, or "Friends of…," group living within watershed boundaries surrounding a public, urban arboretum in South Central Wisconsin. Responses to semi-structured interview questions were analyzed using an iterative analytic method. Indicators of place-based meanings associated with this urban natural area were assessed from interview transcripts. An integrative model of Arboretum Meanings emerged from the analysis highlighting place meanings associated with various attributes of the area. Use of this urban natural area was often associated with a deep appreciation of its biodiversity, as a location for sanctuary or escape, a place for recreation and exercise, and as a meeting place for friends and family. Results are discussed in terms of how place-based meanings can inform land managers and conservation advocacy group leaders to better understand their stakeholders, maintain the most desirable elements of urban natural areas, and reduce potential conflict resulting from divergent place meanings among user groups.</p><h4 id="secGabs_Nace203d0N7cd50cd0">Highlights</h4><p>? Place meanings included four main themes: nature, sanctuary, activity, and society. ? Concerns included property misuse, development, deer, and invasive species. ? Understanding stakeholder language can help managers craft engagement strategies.</p>
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| [24] |
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