地理研究  2015 , 34 (9): 1744-1754 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201509012

Orginal Article

居民就业可达性的空间分布及对收入的影响——基于上海都市区的实证研究

吴江洁12, 孙斌栋12

1. 华东师范大学中国现代城市研究中心,上海 200062
2. 华东师范大学城市与区域科学学院,上海 200241

Job accessibility and its impact on income: Outcomes from Shanghai Metropolitan Area

WU Jiangjie12, SUN Bindong12

1. Center for Modern Chinese City Studies, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
2. School of Urban and Regional Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China

通讯作者:  孙斌栋(1970- ),男,河北阜平人,教授,博士生导师,研究方向为城市与区域经济、城市与区域规划、城市交通与土地利用。E-mail: bdsun@re.ecnu.edu.cn

收稿日期: 2015-03-18

修回日期:  2015-06-30

网络出版日期:  2015-09-15

版权声明:  2015 《地理研究》编辑部 《地理研究》编辑部

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金项目(41471139)上海市哲学社会科学规划课题(2014BCK003)教育部人文社会科学重点研究基地重大项目(11JJDZH004)

作者简介:

作者简介:吴江洁(1988- ),女,湖南长沙人,博士研究生,研究方向为城市经济和空间结构。E-mail: wjjorange@yeah.net

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摘要

基于第六次人口普查、第二次经济普查和问卷调查数据,定量描述和分析了上海都市区内部以街道为空间尺度的就业可达性及其空间格局,探讨了劳动者的工资收入与居住区位就业可达性的关系。结论表明:上海市的居民就业可达性呈现相对均衡的多中心分布格局,与北京就业可达性单中心的分布格局有明显的不同。同时,在控制个人经济社会属性和地区属性的条件下,上海的居民就业可达性对居民个人收入水平具有显著的正向影响。这一结论的政策含义是,地理区位较差的住房有损于居民收入,可能是吸引力不足的重要原因之一;政府通过提高地区的居民就业可达性,有助于改善就业机会,促进居民个人收入的增加。

关键词: 就业可达性 ; 空间格局 ; 收入水平 ; 上海都市区

Abstract

The social effects of city spatial structure have long been an important issue in the field of urban geography and urban economics research. However, the impact of job-housing spatial relationship on income has received little attention in empirical analyses. Employing the Sixth Population Census and the Second Economic Census datasets, we apply a measure of job accessibility developed by Ong & Blumenberg to describe the spatial structure of employment opportunities and working people in Shanghai Metropolitan Area at sub-district level. Combining survey data, we empirically investigate the extent to which individual income may be influenced by job proximity. The results are the following. First, Shanghai has a polycentric job accessibility structure, indicating that job accessibility are very similar both in the inner city and in the sub-district. This does not apply to the case of Beijing. The main reason which can explain this phenomenon may be that Beijing and Shanghai have different industrial structures. Beijing strongly relies on services sector, which has caused most of job opportunities to be located in inner-city. As for Shanghai, manufacture still plays an important role in economic growth and many of jobs are located in suburban area of Shanghai. Second, the output of the regression shows that incomes are significantly and positively associated with job accessibility, indicating that personal income level increases along with job proximity increases correspondingly. In more detail, people who live in the sub-districts with richer job opportunities have higher income level. For people who live in job-poor sub-districts usually have lower incomes, which may be due to higher commuting expense and employment pressure. Since job proximity is closely related to income, those housing areas far from inner city and job opportunities may not only damage social efficiency but also drive the level of individual income down. This may be one of the reasons why people are not willing to live far from inner-city. It also inspires the local government that moderate measures on increasing job accessibilities are needed for improving employment situation and individuals’ income level. Job accessibility can be improved by creating more job opportunities which are suitable to the residents, and also by enabling the workers to travel easily to work sites.

Keywords: job accessibility ; spatial pattern ; income level ; Shanghai Metropolitan Area

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吴江洁, 孙斌栋. 居民就业可达性的空间分布及对收入的影响——基于上海都市区的实证研究[J]. , 2015, 34(9): 1744-1754 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201509012

WU Jiangjie, SUN Bindong. Job accessibility and its impact on income: Outcomes from Shanghai Metropolitan Area[J]. 地理研究, 2015, 34(9): 1744-1754 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201509012

1 引言

伴随改革开放以来中国经济的迅速发展,个人收入差距也不断扩大。中国国家统计局公布的2013年中国居民收入基尼系数为0.473,继续在0.4的禁戒线之上。个人收入差距扩大在大城市中带来的问题尤为突出,由于大城市的生活成本更高,低收入群体面临更大的生存与就业压力。如何兼顾效率与公平,以增加低收入者的收入和减少收入差距日益成为各级政府面临的重要任务之一。影响收入水平差异的因素很多,既包括个人的能力、教育水平、社会背景、性别等个体社会经济属性,也包括非个体的外在影响因素,其中,居民的就业可达性是很多国外文献中讨论的一个影响收入的重要因素。在中国快速城镇化进程中,城市正经历着空间重构的过程,居民的居住和就业空间配置出现失衡,降低了居民的就业可达性。但现有的国内研究却鲜有从就业可达性角度关注其对居民收入的影响。利用空间分析和计量统计的方法,以上海都市区(以下简称“上海市”)为案例,检验中国特大城市就业机会的空间可达性是否对居民的收入存在显著影响,从而加深对空间结构与收入关系的认识,同时也为缩小收入差距的政策设计提供思路和依据。

城市空间结构及其所带来的一系列社会影响一直是城市地理学和城市经济学关注的重要议题,而居住和工作空间作为城市空间结构的重要组成要素,也是重点研究对象。

早在20世纪60年代,美国学者Kain就提出了空间错配理论,最先从城市空间结构理论的角度阐述了居住和就业空间错配是造成美国大都市区中心城区黑人居民的长距离通勤、就业收入较低和失业率较高的重要原因[1]。这引发了大量学者开展一系列关于职住空间结构对于居民就业率、收入的影响研究。最初大部分学者多将通勤时间和通勤距离作为测度空间错位程度的指标。随着研究范围和研究对象不断扩大,对于就业居住错位问题的研究得到发展和深化。随后,有人提出了就业可达性的概念作为研究职住均衡和不同社会人群城市就业差距的新视角,较早进行此研究的是Hutchinson[2,3]。就业可达性主要用于衡量一个地区就业适龄人口和周边潜在工作机会的匹配程度[4],也能够反映一个区域内部就业的丰富程度。就业可达性越高,说明该区域居民享有更丰富的就业机会,与就业的匹配程度越高。

虽然西方学者对就业可达性对于居民在劳动力市场表现的影响进行了大量的研究,但在结论上并未完全一致。一部分学者否认就业可达性在工资收入影响因素中的重要地位[5-7],认为相较于就业机会的可达性,种族、教育程度及小汽车的拥有量对于居民的就业收入的影响更为重要[5]。美国拥有发达的道路交通系统,郊区环境宜人,居民会为了享受更好的居住条件,而忽视就业可达性的程度,远离喧闹的城市就业密集地区,这也导致出现了居住在就业机会较少的地区而工资水平更高的情况[7]。但更多学者认为,除了种族和教育之外,就业可达性对于工资收入和就业情况同样具有重要的影响[8-12]。相关研究发现,由于远离适合的工作岗位,居民则需要承担更大的通勤成本、更加不畅的信息交流,从而影响他们的工作表现,导致就业收入的降低[8]。并且,就业岗位类型与周边居民能力上的匹配比就业居住总量上的匹配更加重要,特别是对于低技能群体而言,通过提高他们居住区周边适合的工作岗位数量对于提高就业率和工资作用更为明显[10]。也正因如此,更多的学者是将目光集中于弱势群体上,例如黑人、妇女、老龄劳动力、单亲家庭等[11,12]。同时,也有学者计算出就业可达性从25分位点增加到75分位点,可以减少4.2%的找工作的时间,再次证明了就业可达性的重要性[12]。就业可达性的研究发源于西方,与其独特的社会经济背景和郊区化发展阶段密切相关。相较之下,中国的多数城市仍以单中心集聚发展模式为主,中心城区的经济和公共服务设施水平高于城市边缘地区,并且不存在种族问题。这也决定了中西方的研究结论和影响因素应有所差异。

国内关于城市居民就业可达性的研究多是与职住均衡相结合,通过通勤距离、职住均衡比等角度考察职住空间错位及其特征[13-16],分析职住均衡的影响因素[17],探讨职住均衡对于居民通勤交通的影响[4,18,19],但关于就业可达性或职住均衡对收入的影响研究很少。

基于此,在已有的职住空间结构相关研究基础之上,首先通过借鉴Ong等的方法[8],测度上海都市区各街道的居民就业可达性,分析其空间格局特征;然后从微观层面,检验居民个人的就业可达性是否影响个人收入水平;最后归纳总结,提出相应的政策建议。

2 数据来源与研究方法

2.1 就业可达性的测度

关于就业可达性的测度,目前的研究主要从以下四方面进行:① 测量居住地居民的平均通勤时间和距离;② 衡量该地区潜在的就业空缺;③ 衡量劳动者与工作机会的距离邻近性;④ 就业机会与就业人口的比重。结合现有的研究基础和数据条件,采用第4种方法,运用Ong等提出的就业可达性指数(job accessibility index)计算上海城市各街道的居民就业可达性,其含义为本街道内的就业岗位数及周边街道的潜在岗位数之和与本街道的就业适龄人口数(15~64岁)之比[4,8]

Ai=Ei+j=1k(Ej×1dij2)WPi(1)

式中:Ai为街道i的就业可达性;Ej为街道i的就业岗位数;k为街道i的周边街道(即街道i居民的求职空间);dij为街道i和街道j几何中心之间的直线距离;WPi为街道i的就业适龄人口数。该公式不同于就业密度的概念,而是根据地理中距离衰减的原则将周边地区就业岗位的影响也考虑在内。根据2009年对上海中心城区的通勤问卷调查,发现居民通勤距离中值为7 km,因而选择7 km作为就业搜索的范围,将其作为缓冲区距离,从而能够覆盖50%以上的通勤需求。

2.2 分析就业可达性对于收入影响的模型选取

Simpson在1992年曾提出了空间影响就业的理论基础,空间对于就业的影响存在直接(通勤成本)和间接(工作信息)影响。Simpson假设所有的工作者都愿意在其的居住地就近就业。当劳动力市场需求较高时,企业为争夺相对稀缺的当地劳动者而提供更高的工资,从而劳动者的收入更高。高收入者的工资与劳动力市场需求的相关性较低,而低技能的工作往往与劳动力市场的需求密切相关,因此前者寻求工作的范围更广,就业上的空间障碍主要影响低技能和一般技能的劳动者。这样的情况在大规模高密度的城市更加明显[20]

根据Simpson的理论基础,构建在其他因素给定的情况下,就业可达性对于个人收入水平影响的模型,如式(2)所示。核心假设是,如果一个人住在就业可达性越差的地区,在附近找到合适的工作机会的可能性就越小,从而个人收入水平会越低。此外,同时考虑到其他影响收入水平的因素。从已有的丰富研究来看,一方面,个人主观条件即求职者自身的社会属性对收入水平会产生影响;另一方面,客观条件也会对求职者的收入水平有重要的影响。因此在模型中加入了可能影响收入水平的其他控制变量,包括个人经济社会属性(性别、年龄、年龄的平方、教育程度、家庭人口数)、区域其他特征(地区平均受教育年限、产业结构、人口规模)等。根据以上分析,基于个人层面的实证模型为:

INCOMEij=β0+β1Xij+β2JOB_Aj+β3RES_DISj+εij(2)

式中:INCOMEij表示居住在街道j的个体i的收入;Xij表示可能影响收入的个人特征,包括性别、年龄、教育、职业类型和家庭人口数;JOB_Aj表示的是街道j的居民就业可达性,因此β2的大小和显著性就是关注的核心,β2的预期观测值是显著为正的;RES_DISj表示街道j的其他特征,如人口规模、制造业比重、平均受教育年限等。

模型中的个人收入数据来自2009年的问卷调查,在6个区间中选择(表1),因此,收入作为因变量属于多分类有序变量。采用适用于该类因变量的偏比例优势模型(partial proportional odds model)进行计量检验,这是基于有序logit模型的一种方法,但拓宽了比例优势模型的应用范围,放宽了比例优势的假定条件,允许模型中部分自变量的参数估计随分割点的不同而不同,使得有序资料的分析方法有了更多的选择余地[21,22]

表1   模型变量列表

Tab. 1   Summary statistics for dependent and independent variables

变量定义均值标准差最小值最大值
就业可达性就业可达性0.64960.61390.05083.9545
家庭属性家庭人口数(人)2.65241.224718
人力资本街道平均受教育年限(年)11.58690.66529.277312.7848
产业结构制造业比重(%)0.15800.16300.00150.8115
人口规模街道的人口数量(万人)13.21948.51052.448737.1856
个人收入水平2000元以下;2000~4000元;4000~6000元;6000~8000元;8000~10000元;10000元以上
年龄小于20;20~30岁;30~40岁;40~50岁;50~60岁;大于60岁
教育程度初中及以下;高中;本科;硕士及以上
职业类型竞争性行业(生产、制造业,批发零售业,住宿、餐饮等服务业);垄断性行业(交通运输、仓储,通讯、信息、软件行业,金融、房地产、设计及咨询);事业性行业(科研教育,医务、社会保障行业,文化、体育、娱乐行业);机关团体(国家机关政党机关和社会团体)

注:问卷中包含的10个职业类型分类是根据国家统计局的行业分类标准划分,参照岳昌君的做法,按其职业特点分为四大类,在模型中以竞争性行业为基准[23]

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2.3 数据来源

就业可达性空间分布的研究区范围为上海都市区,即除崇明县以外的上海市域范围,这主要是考虑到基于就业可达性计算过程中所需的地域连续性。为求得上海市就业可达性及其空间格局,采用的就业岗位数的数据来自于2008年第二次全国经济普查,而各街道的就业适龄人口数则采用第六次全国人口普查数据。关于就业可达性与收入关系的研究区域范围为上海市外环线以内的中心城区 (范围具体包括上海中心城的黄浦区、卢湾区、静安区、徐汇区、长宁区、虹口区、普陀区、闸北区、杨浦区和近郊区宝山区、闵行区、浦东新区,共计12个行政区的外环线以内部分。),所用数据主要来自于2009年4-5月在上海市中心城区发放的问卷调查数据。问卷采用随机抽查的方式,数据采集时间为周末,选取各行政区内空间分布均衡的2~3个公园作为数据采集点,在各公园随机选取50名游客作为受访对象,共发放问卷1212份,回收有效问卷771份。样本居住地覆盖范围达到113个街道,其中752个样本分布于外环线以内105个街道,占外环内街道总数(112个)的93.75%。问卷内容包括被访者社会经济属性、通勤特征、工作地与居住地的具体位置、居住地选择偏好等信息(表2)。

表2   调查样本基本情况统计

Tab. 2   The basic statistics of surveyed samples

样本属性样本量(个)比例(%)样本属性样本量(个)比例(%)
年龄小于20岁192.46个人收入水平2000元以下10613.75
20~30岁42054.472000~4000元30940.08
30~40岁25032.434000~6000元16721.66
40~50岁607.786000~8000元8110.51
50岁以上202.858000~10000元455.84
性别48162.3910000元以上638.17
29037.61教育程度初中及以下324.15
职业类型竞争性行业14518.81高中16821.79
垄断性行业18423.87本科49564.2
事业性行业33443.32硕士及以上769.86
机关团体10814.01

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3 上海市居民就业可达性的空间格局

图1a显示的是上海市各个街道的就业适龄人口数(15~64岁)的分布情况。从图上可以清晰反应出劳动力呈现去中心化格局,中心城区的就业适龄人口数已经明显低于周边地区。适龄劳动力主要集中于外环线周边,其中人数较多的为闵行区的七宝镇、莘庄镇、梅龙镇、浦江镇,松江区的九亭镇,宝山区的大场镇,嘉定的江桥镇,以及浦东新区的三林镇、北蔡镇和川沙新镇,奉贤区的南桥镇。

图1   上海都市区分街道就业适龄人口数和就业岗位数(人)

Fig. 1   Labor force population and the number of employment opportunities by sub-district in Shanghai Metropolitan Area

图1b为上海市各街道就业岗位数,显现出集中与分散并存的现象。城市中心区仍然集聚大量的就业岗位,主要位于黄浦区的外滩街道、南京东路街道,静安区的南京西路街道,徐汇区的徐家汇街道、田林街道、虹梅路街道,普陀区的长寿路街道、长征镇,浦东新区的陆家嘴街道。同时,大量的就业岗位也集中于外环线周边,与适龄人口所表现出现的分布情况相似。

从总量上看,上海各街道无论是适龄人口还是就业岗位都呈现出分散化态势,但通过对密度图的分析,发现人口与就业的空间分布还是存在较大的不同。图2a显示,适龄人口密度较为密集的区域分布广泛,从中心城区向外环区域扩散的态势明显,并且在近郊区的宝山区、闵行区、浦东新区的就业密度明显高于远郊区。图2b显示出目前中心城区就业岗位密度仍然明显高于周边地区。

图2   上海都市区分街道就业适龄人口密度和就业岗位密度(人/km2

Fig. 2   Density of labor force population and employment opportunities by sub-district in Shanghai Metropolitan Area

按照式(1)计算出上海都市区各街道的就业可达性指数。全市的就业可达性均值为1.18,中值为0.48,最小值为0.051,最大值为70.950,标准差为5.39。但在各街道就业可达性的数值中存在两个异常高值,一个为外高桥保税区,另一个为金桥出口加工区,就业可达性分别高达70.950和27.608,远远高于其他地区。依据政府公布的统计数据计算得到就业可达性指数,造成这种情况的原因主要在于,这两个街道是企业集聚区,就业岗位远大于该地区的劳动适龄人口数。但在计算过程中会对平均值的计算带来影响,使得均值过高。剔除掉这两个特殊值后,上海市的就业可达性均值为0.69,中值为0.48,标准差为0.72。

图3可以清晰的看出,目前上海的就业可达性呈现出以下几个特点:首先,圈层式的分布特征明显。以区县为单位来看,中心城区仍然是传统的就业中心,就业可达性较高。静安、黄浦、卢湾、徐汇的就业可达性水平均高于上海市的均值水平(图4)。远郊区发展快速,其中浦东、金山、松江、奉贤、嘉定各居一隅,成为次级就业可达性高地。而中心城区的边缘区以及近郊区则低于平均水平,成为就业可达性较低的地区。其次,就业可达性较高的区域在空间上较为分散。除中心城区的外滩、南京东路、徐家汇等发展水平较高的街道外,其他就业可达性较高的街道为来自于嘉定区的南翔镇、嘉定工业区,金山区的廊下镇,青浦区的香花桥街道,松江区的石湖荡镇、松江工业区,奉贤区的拓林镇,浦东新区的金桥出口加工区、张江高科技园区、外高桥保税区,闵行的莘庄工业区。这些街道多为功能复合型的大型产业园和工业基地。

图3   上海都市区各街道就业可达性

Fig. 3   Job accessibility index of sub-district (jiedao) in Shanghai Metropolitan Area

图4   上海都市区各区就业可达性

Fig. 4   Job accessibility index of districts in Shanghai Metropolitan Area

从外环内区域看,就业可达性随着远离市中心距离的增大而逐渐减小,但从上海市整体来看,上海市各街道的就业可达性呈现明显的多中心化格局。这与北京单中心格局的就业可达性存在很大不同,北京中心区街道的就业可达性明显高于郊区,并主要集中于二环以内[4]。存在这种空间特征分异的主要原因之一可能是在于产业结构的差异。北京的产业结构以服务业为主,2012年服务业占总产值比重达76.4%,而服务业更倾向于布局于基础设施更为发达、人员交流更加密集的城市中心地区。相较之下,2012年上海市服务业占GDP的比重才首次超过60%,制造业仍是经济发展的重要动力,而这类产业多分布于上海近郊区域。这样的差异在空间上便表现为不同的人口—就业发展格局。北京人口虽呈现出一定程度的郊区化态势,但产业活动仍具有明显的向心发展特点,而上海就业与人口郊区化趋势更为一致[24]

4 就业可达性对收入水平的影响:实证结果与讨论

以个人收入水平为因变量,将就业可达性、个人经济社会属性、地区属性作为自变量,运用式(2)分析就业可达性对收入的影响,结果如表3所示。其中模型y=1表示收入2、3、4、5、6相对于收入1(即出现大于收入水平1)的概率估计模型,模型y=2表示收入3、4、5、6相对收入1、2(即出现大于收入水平2)的概率估计模型,以此类推。该模型卡方检验统计量为452.77,且此卡方值的P值小于0.05,说明在0.05的显著性水平下,模型显著。模型McFadden's伪R2为0.19,对于分类数据统计而言,该系数不同于OLS的R2,一般都不会太高,属于正常情况[25]

表3   实证结果

Tab. 3   The output of partial proportional odds model explaining the effects of job accessibility on income

模型y=1y=2y=3y=4y=5
就业可达性0.335***0.335***0.335***0.335***0.335***
(0.126)(0.126)(0.126)(0.126)(0.126)
性别-1.075***-1.075***-1.075***-1.075***-1.075***
(0.152)(0.152)(0.152)(0.152)(0.152)
年龄4.031***3.960***3.031***5.182***1.548
(0.761)(0.673)(0.710)(1.142)(1.447)
年龄的平方-0.640***-0.543***-0.420***-0.792***-0.0576
(0.121)(0.107)(0.113)(0.197)(0.248)
教育程度1.879***1.997***1.455***1.473***0.728**
(0.198)(0.186)(0.193)(0.231)(0.297)
职业类型(竞争性行业作为参照)
垄断性行业0.06060.06060.06060.06060.0606
(0.221)(0.221)(0.221)(0.221)(0.221)
事业性行业0.618**0.2210.665***0.619**1.077***
(0.298)(0.215)(0.231)(0.262)(0.312)
机关团体0.681***0.681***0.681***0.681***0.681***
(0.244)(0.244)(0.244)(0.244)(0.244)
家庭人口数0.08710.08710.08710.08710.0871
(0.0620)(0.0620)(0.0620)(0.0620)(0.0620)
街道平均受教育年限0.08190.08190.08190.08190.0819
(0.124)(0.124)(0.124)(0.124)(0.124)
街道制造业比重-1.635***-1.635***-1.635***-1.635***-1.635***
(0.597)(0.597)(0.597)(0.597)(0.597)
街道人口0.0399***0.0399***0.0399***0.0399***0.0399***
(0.0110)(0.0110)(0.0110)(0.0110)(0.0110)
常数项-8.907***-12.48***-10.91***-14.74***-9.172***
(1.857)(1.851)(1.873)(2.254)(2.603)
样本数量771
LR chi2(28)452.77
0.0000
0.1861
Prob > chi2
R2

注:1. 括号内为标准差;2. “*”、“**”、“***”分别表示在10%、5%和1%水平上的显著程度。

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表3可以看出,在5个结果模型中,就业可达性系数是一致的,都显著为正,即就业可达性指数越高,出现大于较低收入水平的概率越大。这一结果表明,就业可达性的确是影响收入的一个重要因素,就业可达性越高,个人收入水平越高。从总体上看,年龄、教育水平、产业结构对于收入水平的影响较就业可达性更大,就业可达性对于居民个人收入的影响是显著而适中的。这样的结论与外国学者的总体研究结论相同[8-10],且符合中国城市发展现状。目前中国大城市中,空间不平等现象严重,位于就业可达性较高区域的居民,享有丰富的就业机会,收入也更高;就业可达性较低的地区居民,在周边寻求合适工作岗位的机会较少,因而不得不承受更大的就业压力,就业率和收入都受到影响。正因如此,分布在郊区且就业可达性较低的保障性住房基地,缺乏对人口的吸引力;那些为改善居住条件而被迫外迁的居民,则不得不忍受社区较差的就业可达性、就业机会以及较低的收入水平。

同时,也考察了个人经济社会属性和地区属性对于收入的影响。从实证结果来看,大部分个人经济社会属性对于收入都有显著的影响。具体来看,男性的收入较女性更高。这可能是因为大部分女性工作的同时还需要兼顾家庭,而男性则会将大量的时间和精力投入到工作当中,对于事业的追求更加强烈。模型中放入年龄的平方,主要是根据已有研究,年龄与收入之间并不完全呈现出线性关系[26]。年龄的一次项对个人收入的影响显著为正,同时年龄的二次项的影响显著为负,这说明年龄对收入的影响呈倒U型,最初个人收入会随着年龄的增加不断增加,但到达一定年龄后,收入反倒会随年龄而递减,这主要由于年纪大的人健康程度和知识获取能力的劣势所造成。但在模型5即最高收入组6相对于其他5个收入组的概率中,年龄变得不显著了,这说明对于高收入人群而言,年龄与收入并没有显著相关性。教育程度的系数显著为正,说明对于收入有正向的促进作用,其中模型y=1和y=2中教育水平的系数分别为1.879和1.997,明显大于其他收入水平模型中的该系数值,表明教育最大的作用主要体现在增加中低收入人群的收入水平。模型中不同的职业类型表现出不同的收入水平,事业性单位和机关团体较竞争性行业收入更高,而垄断性行业较竞争性行业在收入上并未发现显著的差异。家庭人口数也未对个人收入产生显著的影响。

模型中同样考虑了居民所在地区属性对于个人收入的影响。从街道层面来看,平均受教育年限对于个人收入水平的影响并不显著,发现街道之间的平均受教育年限差异较小(可能是平均值降低了个人受教育差距),并未反映出个人学历或文化水平上的较大差异,因此它的影响也并未体现在个人收入水平上。产业结构和人口规模对收入都有显著影响。街道的制造业比重越大,个人的收入水平越低,这说明制造业对于收入水平的促进作用不及服务业,与中国目前的状况相符。同时,街道人口显著为正,这说明生活在人口规模越大的街道,收入水平也会越高。已有的研究多将人口规模作为反映一个地区集聚经济程度的指标[27],集聚通过投入品分享、生产要素匹配和学习机会三个机制促进地区劳动生产率的提高,对于个人收入水平有正效应。

5 结论与讨论

分析了上海都市区居民就业可达性的空间分布,是国内较早检验就业可达性对于个人收入水平影响的研究。结果显示,上海市居民就业可达性呈现分散化、多中心分布格局,传统强势的中心城区和远郊区新城都具有较高的就业可达性,从而有异于北京单中心的就业可达性格局;在控制个人经济社会属性、居住地属性的情况下,上海市居民就业可达性对于提高个人收入水平存在显著的正向影响,这预示着通过提高地区周边的就业机会丰富程度能有效提升居民收入。其它影响收入水平的影响因素中,教育程度显示出促进收入提高的积极效应,尤其是对于中低收入的人群作用更突出。

该结论为政府科学规划决策提供了依据。就业可达性的测度虽具有一定的滞后性,但在规划建设过程中适度调控职住空间结构,仍然会对实现空间平等、提高居民收入有显著效用。一方面,在城市的旧城改造中,不能一味地把居住功能完全置换为产业功能,应保留适度居住功能,如果当地的工作者无法在就业地附近找到合适的住所,住在一个离就业地更远的地点,则会降低他们的就业可达性,从而影响个人的收入水平。另一方面,政府应在不违背集聚经济规律的前提下,在大规模进行新城建设的同时,提高居民区周边就业岗位的集聚程度,使居民能在附近找到合适的工作,提高就业可达性。尤其对于一些中低收入人群而言,其本身的工作选择能力较弱,收入较低,如果住房迁移至郊区,而就业仍停留在中心城区,则会造成这类人群承受更长的通勤距离。结论同样表明,提高中低收入地区的教育水平、促进教育资源的均等化仍然是提高居民收入水平的重要措施。

不足之处在于:受数据可得性限制,文章未能很好地解决就业可达性与收入之间可能存在的内生性问题;同时,采用的数据多为总量数据,缺乏细分行业类型的就业数据;对于就业可达性所导致的就业空间障碍,没有作进一步的机制剖析,这些都是未来值得深入研究的问题。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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Urban Geography, 2013, 34(6): 815-842.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2013.778600      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In this article, we undertake an analysis of accessibility to jobs from the perspective of single-parent household members. Individuals in this demographic segment are of interest due to the fact they often face the double burden of household and employment responsibilities. A case study of the city of Toronto in Canada, an urban area that has seen an increase in absolute and relative numbers of single-parent households in recent years, is presented. Analysis is based on the application of relative accessibility deprivation indicators (RADI), which are calculated using model-based estimates of distance traveled for various population segments, as well as employment data for the city and its surroundings. The results of the analysis indicate that there are substantial differences in the levels of accessibility to jobs between members of single-parent households, in particular females, and members of other types of households.
[12] Andersson F, Haltiwanger J C, Kutzbach M J, et al.

Job displacement and the duration of joblessness: The role of spatial mismatch

. NBER Working Paper, 2014, No. 20066.

https://doi.org/10.1109/MAP.1985.27818      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

This paper presents a new approach to the measurement of the effects of spatial mismatch that takes advantage of matched employer-employee administrative data integrated with a person-specific job accessibility measure, as well as demographic and neighbourhood characteristics. The basic hypothesis is that if spatial mismatch is present, then improved accessibility to appropriate jobs should shorten the duration of unemployment. We focus on lower-income workers with strong labor force attachment searching for employment after being subject to a mass lay-off - thereby focusing on a group of job searchers that are plausibly searching for exogenous reasons. We construct person-specific measures of job accessibility based upon an empirical model of transport modal choice and network travel-time data, giving variation both across neighbourhoods in nine metropolitan areas, as well as across neighbours. Our results support the spatial mismatch hypothesis. We find that better job accessibility significantly decreases the duration of joblessness among lower-paid displaced workers. Blacks, females, and older workers are more sensitive to job accessibility than other sub-populations. Institutional subscribers to the NBER working paper series, and residents of developing countries may download this paper without additional charge at www.nber.org .
[13] 孟斌.

北京城市居民职住分离的空间组织特征

. 地理学报, 2009, 64(12): 1457-1466.

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2009.12.006      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This study chose Beijing as a case.It was based on the questionnaire answered by nearly 10000 people in 2005.The Geographic Information System(GIS) and spatial analysis were used to analyze the characteristics of the separation between jobs and residential locations in Beijing.Based on the case study, we found that the separation between jobs and residential locations has become a serious phenomenon in Beijing.The average commuter time is 38.0 minutes, and more than 43.7% of the workers spend more than 40 minutes on commuting.The spatial analyses show that there are spatial differences, which may be caused by the spatial structure of Beijing.The problem of the separation is not too serious in the urban central areas.However, as some suburban areas were designed to be large living communities, the residents in these areas faced a more serious problem of the separation between jobs and residential locations.On the other hand, people living in satellite towns have more chances to find jobs, so the problem of the separation between working places and home is not serious.The cluster analysis shows that there are several visible clusters of employment concentration in Beijing.The locations of these clusters are "Spatial Mis-match" with the population concentration.This "Spatial Mis-match" is decided by the rent price of the land in the city.The flow of the commuters is another index of the separation between jobs and residential locations.In Beijing, the "To Center" flows are the main commuter flow now, although there are "Out of Center" flows at the same time.This suggests that the spatial organization of the separation between jobs and residential locations is changing gradually in Beijing.

[Meng Bin.

The spatial organization of the separation between jobs and residential locations in Beijing.

Acta Geographica Sinica, 2009, 64(12): 1457-1466.]

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2009.12.006      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This study chose Beijing as a case.It was based on the questionnaire answered by nearly 10000 people in 2005.The Geographic Information System(GIS) and spatial analysis were used to analyze the characteristics of the separation between jobs and residential locations in Beijing.Based on the case study, we found that the separation between jobs and residential locations has become a serious phenomenon in Beijing.The average commuter time is 38.0 minutes, and more than 43.7% of the workers spend more than 40 minutes on commuting.The spatial analyses show that there are spatial differences, which may be caused by the spatial structure of Beijing.The problem of the separation is not too serious in the urban central areas.However, as some suburban areas were designed to be large living communities, the residents in these areas faced a more serious problem of the separation between jobs and residential locations.On the other hand, people living in satellite towns have more chances to find jobs, so the problem of the separation between working places and home is not serious.The cluster analysis shows that there are several visible clusters of employment concentration in Beijing.The locations of these clusters are "Spatial Mis-match" with the population concentration.This "Spatial Mis-match" is decided by the rent price of the land in the city.The flow of the commuters is another index of the separation between jobs and residential locations.In Beijing, the "To Center" flows are the main commuter flow now, although there are "Out of Center" flows at the same time.This suggests that the spatial organization of the separation between jobs and residential locations is changing gradually in Beijing.
[14] 顾翠红, 魏清泉.

上海市职住分离情况定量分析

. 规划师, 2008, 24(6): 57-62.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-0022.2008.06.014      URL      摘要

By quantitative research on comparison of working and residential places in second industry and third industry, there is a serious working and residential separation in Shanghai. This causes a series of problems such as increase in transportation expense, transportation problems, increase of enterprise cost, and difficulty in central area functional disposition and urban space expansion. Residence and job should be balanced and developed coordinately to realize win-win situation.

[Gu Cuihong, Wei Qingquan.

Quantitative analysis of Shanghai working and residential separation.

Planners, 2008, 24(6): 57-62.]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-0022.2008.06.014      URL      摘要

By quantitative research on comparison of working and residential places in second industry and third industry, there is a serious working and residential separation in Shanghai. This causes a series of problems such as increase in transportation expense, transportation problems, increase of enterprise cost, and difficulty in central area functional disposition and urban space expansion. Residence and job should be balanced and developed coordinately to realize win-win situation.
[15] 湛东升, 孟斌.

基于社会属性的北京市居民居住与就业空间集聚特征

. 地理学报, 2013, 68(12): 1607-1618.

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201312002      URL      摘要

Along with the changes of urban residents' social space during China's institutional transition period, a wide concern has been aroused on the even more complicated spatial organization of residence and employment. Based on residential survey data of Beijing in 2010, several spatial analysis methods were applied to analyze characteristics of spatial distribution of residence and employment of different social groups in Beijing, such as the buffer analysis, the nearest neighbour clustering and Ripley K functions. The results indicated that spatial differentiation of residence and employment in Beijing was significant. Furthermore, relative differences on proportions of spatial distribution of residence and employment of different social groups also existed in the interior space of residence or employment. Degree of spatial mismatch showed that the circle of about a 15-km distance from Tian'anmen was the boundary of function dominant areas of employment and residence. Meanwhile, degree of jobs-housing balance presented a decreasing trend from inner city to outer layers as a whole, while that of high income groups and young white-collar workers was lower than the other two groups. Besides, spatial agglomeration of residence and employment for different groups also presented different characteristics. For common citizens, residential and employment locations were scattered in distribution. For young migrant workers, cluster locations of their living and working spaces were quite adjacent to each other, which were mainly concentrated in the eastern region of the city. Residential locations of high income groups were mostly separated, but their employment locations were relatively centered in the eastern and northwestern parts of the city. At the same time, distribution of young white-collars' living spaces displayed a band-like clustering in the west but scattered in the east, while their working spaces were mainly agglomerated in two axis regions centered on Zhongguancun and CBD respectively. Spatial agglomeration characteristics of residential and employment locations for different groups were similar in case of scales, revealing a trend of "increase at first but decrease later" with the increase of their distance from clustering center, although their distance thresholds were different. This difference suggested that high income groups had limited optional range on their residential locations and common citizens had minimum optional range on their employment locations, but the young white-collars showed maximum optional range on both residential and employment locations.

[Zhan Dongsheng, Meng Bin.

Spatial clustering analysis of residential and employment distribution in Beijing based on their social characteristics.

Acta Geographica Sinica, 2013, 68(12): 1607-1618.]

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201312002      URL      摘要

Along with the changes of urban residents' social space during China's institutional transition period, a wide concern has been aroused on the even more complicated spatial organization of residence and employment. Based on residential survey data of Beijing in 2010, several spatial analysis methods were applied to analyze characteristics of spatial distribution of residence and employment of different social groups in Beijing, such as the buffer analysis, the nearest neighbour clustering and Ripley K functions. The results indicated that spatial differentiation of residence and employment in Beijing was significant. Furthermore, relative differences on proportions of spatial distribution of residence and employment of different social groups also existed in the interior space of residence or employment. Degree of spatial mismatch showed that the circle of about a 15-km distance from Tian'anmen was the boundary of function dominant areas of employment and residence. Meanwhile, degree of jobs-housing balance presented a decreasing trend from inner city to outer layers as a whole, while that of high income groups and young white-collar workers was lower than the other two groups. Besides, spatial agglomeration of residence and employment for different groups also presented different characteristics. For common citizens, residential and employment locations were scattered in distribution. For young migrant workers, cluster locations of their living and working spaces were quite adjacent to each other, which were mainly concentrated in the eastern region of the city. Residential locations of high income groups were mostly separated, but their employment locations were relatively centered in the eastern and northwestern parts of the city. At the same time, distribution of young white-collars' living spaces displayed a band-like clustering in the west but scattered in the east, while their working spaces were mainly agglomerated in two axis regions centered on Zhongguancun and CBD respectively. Spatial agglomeration characteristics of residential and employment locations for different groups were similar in case of scales, revealing a trend of "increase at first but decrease later" with the increase of their distance from clustering center, although their distance thresholds were different. This difference suggested that high income groups had limited optional range on their residential locations and common citizens had minimum optional range on their employment locations, but the young white-collars showed maximum optional range on both residential and employment locations.
[16] 刘志林, 张艳, 柴彦威.

中国大城市职住分离现象及其特征: 以北京市为例

. 城市发展研究, 2009, 16(9): 110-117.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[Liu Zhilin, Zhang Yan, Chai Yanwei.

Home-work separation in the context of institutional and spatial transformation in urban China: Evidence from Beijing household survey data.

Urban Studies, 2009, 16(9): 110-117.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[17] 肖琛, 陈雯, 袁丰, .

2000-2010年无锡市职住空间关系变化及影响因素分析

. 地理科学, 2014, 34(2): 137-146.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[Xiao Chen, Chen Wen, Yuan Feng, et al.

Relationship between job-housing spaces of Wuxi city and relationship and its influencing factors in 2000-2010.

Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2014, 34(2): 137-146.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[18] 孙斌栋, 李南菲, 宋杰洁, .

职住平衡对通勤交通的影响分析: 对一个传统城市规划理念的实证检验

. 城市规划学刊, 2010, (6): 55-60.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[Sun Bindong, Li Nanfei, Song Jiejie, et al.

A study of impact of job-housing balance on commuting travels: An empirical test of a traditional idea in the field of urban planning.

Urban Planning Forum, 2010, (6): 55-60.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[19] 周江评, 陈晓键, 黄伟, .

中国中西部大城市的职住平衡与通勤效率: 以西安为例

. 地理学报, 2013, 68(10): 1316-1330.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[Zhou Jiangping, Chen Xiaojian, Huang Wei, et al.

Jobs-housing balance and commute efficiency in cities of central and western China: A case study of Xi'an.

Acta Geographica Sinica, 2013, 68(10): 1316-1330.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[20] Simpson W.Urban Structure and the Labor Market: Worker Mobility, Commuting and Underemployment in Cities. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992.

[本文引用: 1]     

[21] 冯国双, 刘德平. 医学研究中的logistic回归分析及SAS实现. 北京: 北京大学医学出版社, 2012.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Feng Guoshuang, Liu Deping.Logistic Regression Analysis with SAS in Medical Research. Beijing: Peking University Medical Press, 2012.]

[本文引用: 1]     

[22] Williams R.

Generalized ordered logit/partial proportional odds models for ordinal dependent variables.

The Stata Journal, 2006, 6(1): 58-82.

https://doi.org/10.1142/9789812772558_0022      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This article describes the gologit2 program for generalized ordered logit models. gologit2 is inspired by Vincent Fu’s gologit routine (Stata Technical Bulletin Reprints 8: 160–164) and is backward compatible with it but offers several additional powerful options. A major strength of gologit2 is that it can fit three special cases of the generalized model: the proportional odds/parallel-lines model, the partial proportional odds model, and the logistic regression model. Hence, gologit2 can fit models that are less restrictive than the parallel-lines models fitted by ologit (whose assumptions are often violated) but more parsimonious and interpretable than those fitted by a nonordinal method, such as multinomial logistic regression (i.e., mlogit). Other key advantages of gologit2 include support for linear constraints, survey data estimation, and the computation of estimated probabilities via the predict command.
[23] 岳昌君.

教育对个人收入差异的影响

. 经济学 (季刊), 2004, 3(S1): 135-150.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

本文在明瑟收入函数的基础上对我国城镇职工的收入影响因素进行了计量回归分析。实证研究的结果表明:近年来我国城镇职工的教育收益率有显著的提高,并且随着受教育程度的提高年均教育收益率呈提高的趋势;教育对个人收入的直接影响是显著的,但是教育并不是影响个人收入的决定性因素,行业差异和地区差异等因素对个人收入也起着非常显著的作用;只有受高等教育者跨行业流动的能力才更明显,并通过流动提高个人的收入;在目前的学费水平下,高等教育投资的直接教育净收益是正的,如果再考虑高等教育的间接收益,那么高等教育的总回报可以到达非常高的水平。

[Yue Changjun.

The impact of education on income difference in urban

China. China Economic Quarterly. 2004, 3(S1): 135-150.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

本文在明瑟收入函数的基础上对我国城镇职工的收入影响因素进行了计量回归分析。实证研究的结果表明:近年来我国城镇职工的教育收益率有显著的提高,并且随着受教育程度的提高年均教育收益率呈提高的趋势;教育对个人收入的直接影响是显著的,但是教育并不是影响个人收入的决定性因素,行业差异和地区差异等因素对个人收入也起着非常显著的作用;只有受高等教育者跨行业流动的能力才更明显,并通过流动提高个人的收入;在目前的学费水平下,高等教育投资的直接教育净收益是正的,如果再考虑高等教育的间接收益,那么高等教育的总回报可以到达非常高的水平。
[24] 孙斌栋, 魏旭红.

上海都市区就业—人口空间结构演化特征

. 地理学报, 2014, 69(6): 747-758.

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201406003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

研究以非参数模型计量为基础, 从集聚—分散维度和单中心—多中心维度刻画了上海都市区就业、人口空间演化特征,并与北京都市区的研究结果进行了横向比较。研究表明,上海都市区的就业和人口不断向外扩散,同时近、远郊均出现了稳定的再集中,就业和人口的空间多中心性都在增强。而北京只存在人口的分散化和多中心化,就业却呈现集中化和单中心化的态势。因而,上海都市区的就业—人口空间匹配程度高于北京。产业结构差异是造成北京、上海两地就业空间演化特征分异的原因之一,上海制造业比重高于北京,郊区的制造业集聚强化了近、远郊吸纳就业能力,促进了多中心空间结构的形成。北京和上海中心城区的就业、人口规模仍在扩张,导致近邻地区被包络在内,原有的次中心逐渐消失,因而,科学确定中心城区的增长边界,有效防止邻近蔓延,应当成为特大城市未来发展的关注重点。

[Sun Bindong, Wei Xuhong.

Spatial distribution and structure evolution of employment and population in Shanghai Metropolitan Area.

Acta Geographica Sinica, 2014, 69(6): 747-758.]

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201406003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

研究以非参数模型计量为基础, 从集聚—分散维度和单中心—多中心维度刻画了上海都市区就业、人口空间演化特征,并与北京都市区的研究结果进行了横向比较。研究表明,上海都市区的就业和人口不断向外扩散,同时近、远郊均出现了稳定的再集中,就业和人口的空间多中心性都在增强。而北京只存在人口的分散化和多中心化,就业却呈现集中化和单中心化的态势。因而,上海都市区的就业—人口空间匹配程度高于北京。产业结构差异是造成北京、上海两地就业空间演化特征分异的原因之一,上海制造业比重高于北京,郊区的制造业集聚强化了近、远郊吸纳就业能力,促进了多中心空间结构的形成。北京和上海中心城区的就业、人口规模仍在扩张,导致近邻地区被包络在内,原有的次中心逐渐消失,因而,科学确定中心城区的增长边界,有效防止邻近蔓延,应当成为特大城市未来发展的关注重点。
[25] 张文彤, 董伟. SPSS统计分析高级教程. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2004.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[Zhang Wentong, Dong Wei.The Advanced Course of SPSS Statistical Analysis. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2004.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[26] 陈钊, 万广华, 陆铭.

行业间不平等日益重要的城镇收入差距成因

. 中国社会科学, 2010, (3): 65-76.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Chen Zhao, Wan Guanghua, Lu Ming.

Inter-industry income inequality: An increasingly important cause of income disparity in urban China: A regression-based decomposition.

Social Sciences in China, 2010, (3): 65-76.]

[本文引用: 1]     

[27] 陆铭, 高虹, 佐藤宏.

城市规模与包容性就业

. 中国社会科学, 2012, (10): 47-66.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The scale economies effects of urban development should be able to increase the employment probability of individual laborers,rather than that,as people usually believe,immigrants will reduce the employment opportunities of original residents.This study employs the instrumental variable to estimate the employment decision model,and finds that individual employment probability increases by an average of 0.039%-0.041% when urban size increases 1%.In addition,greater urban size also has different employment increase effects on laborers of different education levels.Generally speaking,both the laborers of higher skills and those of lower skills benefit from the increase of urban size,with the latter benefiting more though.The increase of urban size does not affect the employment probability of medium-skill labor force.Therefore,the restrictive measures on urban population,particularly those on lower-skill labor force,will incur both inefficiency and injustice,and will bring harm to the achievement of inclusive growth.

[Lu Ming, Gao Hong, Hiroshi Satö.

On urban size and inclusive employment.

Social Sciences in China, 2012, (10): 47-66.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The scale economies effects of urban development should be able to increase the employment probability of individual laborers,rather than that,as people usually believe,immigrants will reduce the employment opportunities of original residents.This study employs the instrumental variable to estimate the employment decision model,and finds that individual employment probability increases by an average of 0.039%-0.041% when urban size increases 1%.In addition,greater urban size also has different employment increase effects on laborers of different education levels.Generally speaking,both the laborers of higher skills and those of lower skills benefit from the increase of urban size,with the latter benefiting more though.The increase of urban size does not affect the employment probability of medium-skill labor force.Therefore,the restrictive measures on urban population,particularly those on lower-skill labor force,will incur both inefficiency and injustice,and will bring harm to the achievement of inclusive growth.

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