地理研究  2018 , 37 (4): 649-658 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201804001

观点与争鸣

土地管理三维思维与土地空间资源认知

郭仁忠123, 罗平12, 罗婷文12

1. 国土资源部城市土地资源监测与仿真重点实验室,深圳 518034
2. 深圳市数字城市工程研究中心,深圳 518034
3. 深圳大学智慧城市研究院,深圳 518060

Three-dimensional thinking for land management and land space resources recognition

GUO Renzhong123, LUO Ping12, LUO Tingwen12

1. Key Laboratory of Urban Land Resources Monitoring and Simulation, Ministry of Land and Resources of China, Shenzhen 518034, Guangdong, China
2. Shenzhen Research Center of Digital City Engineering, Shenzhen 518034, Guangdong, China
3. Research Institute for Smart Cities, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, Guangdong, China

收稿日期: 2017-11-21

修回日期:  2018-01-31

网络出版日期:  2018-04-20

版权声明:  2018 《地理研究》编辑部 《地理研究》编辑部

基金资助:  “十二五”国家科技支撑计划项目(2013BAJ05B04)

作者简介:

作者简介:郭仁忠(1956- ),男,江苏盐城人,中国工程院院士,教授,博士生导师,主要研究方向为土地资源管理和地理信息技术。E-mail: guorz2013@qq.com

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摘要

基于城市发展的三维理念轨迹及土地立体化利用趋势,采用文献检索与综合分析法,剖析土地管理重视三维思维的原因,辨析土地的空间特质,提出土地空间资源的概念内涵,初探土地空间资源管理制度和技术,以促进土地领域实践问题解决。结果显示:① 土地管理三维思维符合社会发展和土地利用趋势,是基于土地管理实践而衍生的创新需求。② 土地作为资源的本质属性之一是空间性,具备三维空间特质;土地空间资源是土地资源概念的外延,是以土地表层为基底或脱离土地表层的可利用的三维空间存在。③ 土地空间资源的提出,能引发土地管理领域在理念、制度和技术上进行三维思维化的重构与创新,具有科学意义和实践价值。

关键词: 土地管理 ; 立体化利用 ; 三维思维 ; 土地空间资源

Abstract

In the background of social-economic elements agglomeration and increasing land resources shortage accompanied with industrialization and urbanization progress, stereoscopic land-use appeared and developed constantly, with the primary features of developing and constructing the ground, upground and underground spaces in spatial cell and multiple functions. Based on the path of three-dimensional urban development and the tendency of stereoscopic land use, using document retrieval and comprehensive analysis, this paper dissects the urgency of strengthening three-dimensional thinking in land management, analyzes the essential attribute and spatial traits of land, proposes the concept and connotation of land space resources, and pre-explores the system and technology of land space resources management, therefore to promote the development of land discipline and the solution of land problems.
Results show that: (1) three-dimensional thinking in land management, which aligns with the tendencies of social development and land use, is an innovative demand based on land management practice. (2) One of the essential attributes of land as the resource is the spatiality with the three-dimensional features. Land space resources, as the extension of land resources, are available three-dimensional spatial existence with the base of or separated from land surface. (3) The recognition of land space resources will initiate the reconstruction and innovation of conceptions, systems and technologies in land management field, which is of theoretical significance and practical value.
Some conclusions can be drawn as follows: developing the three-dimensional thinking in land management based on the continuation of current land management theory and technology, and exploring the land space resources management framework is of theoretical and practical significance. It is necessary to further deepen the theoretical understanding and scientific methodology of three-dimensional management. Then a systematical research and development can follow.

Keywords: land management ; stereoscopic land-use ; three-dimensional thinking ; land space resources

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郭仁忠, 罗平, 罗婷文. 土地管理三维思维与土地空间资源认知[J]. 地理研究, 2018, 37(4): 649-658 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201804001

GUO Renzhong, LUO Ping, LUO Tingwen. Three-dimensional thinking for land management and land space resources recognition[J]. Geographical Research, 2018, 37(4): 649-658 https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201804001

主旨聚焦:基于土地立体化利用趋势及衍生的管理需求,提出土地管理三维思维,并由土地的表层资源认知拓展至土地的空间资源认知,是土地认知在三维思维下的演绎发展与探索突破。

1 引言

土地是人类生产生活的基本载体,随着生产力水平的提升,其物质形态、内涵属性、利用方式、功能表象等不断演进与发展,从而带来相应管理制度和工程技术的变化。工业化、城市化进程伴随着社会经济要素的集聚,在土地资源紧缺的背景下催生了以高强度、功能复合等为主要特征的土地立体化利用行为。传统的秉承二维平面思维、关注土地表层资源的管理思路及工程技术难以支撑该利用行为的管理,迫切需要探索秉承三维思维的土地管理新思路及相应的技术方法。目前,国内外对于土地立体化利用模式[1,2]、立体空间利用评价规划[3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]、土地空间权[11,12,13]、三维地籍[14,15,16,17,18,19,20]、三维仿真[21,22,23,24,25,26,27]等均有相关研究,但这些研究多源于不同的领域,面向各自领域的具体问题进行相对独立的探索,缺乏顶层设计和系统思考。本文拟在阐述城市发展的三维理念轨迹基础上,剖析土地管理三维思维的必要性,强化土地的空间特性认知,由土地的表层资源特性拓展至土地的空间资源特性,提出土地空间资源概念并辨析其内涵,初步探索土地空间资源管理及重点研究领域,旨在引发土地管理领域在理念、制度和技术上进行三维思维化的发展,促进土地科技创新、支撑土地实践问题解决。

2 土地管理三维思维源析

2.1 三维思维下的城市发展

纵观世界城市发展,几百年来主要是一种基于二维思维的平面蔓延模式,强调以地面为基面、在地表组织城市活动[28],如同心圆模式[29]、扇形模式[30]、多核心模式[31]等。随着工业化、城市化进程的快速推进,城市发展逐渐从平面蔓延向空间集约转变,注重拓展城市的竖向发展,形成以纵横向结合的方式来组织城市活动的发展模式,一系列体现三维思维的城市发展理念不断被提出并付诸实践。20世纪60年代,欧美、日本等掀起关于垂直城市(Vertical City)[31]的讨论并进行实践,如1968年日本东京霞关大厦建成,实现了都市要素由横向流动向纵向流动的转变[32]。20世纪70年代,紧凑城市(Compact City)[33]理念被提出,主张高密度、结构紧凑的城市形态。荷兰的城市规划深受其影响,在第4次全国空间规划(1988年)中强调集中建设与土地混合利用[34]。20世纪90年代精明增长(Smart Growth)[35]理念被提出,主张兼顾社会、经济、环境综合效益的城市集约发展。如1997年美国马里兰州的《精明增长和邻里保护总决议》,要求通过限制低密度开发、保护自然用地等手段来促进城市的精明增长[36]。21世纪初,在哥本哈根会议上,冯仑提出立体城市(GREAT City)[37]的概念,提倡城市的“竖向发展、大疏大密、资源集约”等。在实践之外,部分国家开展了三维立体城市发展的模型设想,如美国“自由号”海上漂浮城市[38]等,为未来城市立体化发展提供了思路参考。三维思维的城市发展理念及实践的不断涌现,既是城市空间形态的自然演进,也是城市发展过程中解决交通拥堵、环境恶化、资源匮乏等系列问题的路径探索。

2.2 土地立体化利用国内外实践

随着城市发展模式的演变,土地利用呈现立体化趋势,其基本特征是土地空间垂直方向上利用的多元化,即地上、地表、地下空间的分单元开发和多功能利用。地铁开发等对于地下空间的利用,是较为早期的土地立体化利用,之后涌现出包括垂直农场[39]图1a)、屋顶及墙面绿化[40]图1b)、立体设施[41]图1c)、综合立体交通[42]图1d)、建筑综合体[43]图1e)等多种利用形态。以垂直农场为例,它是为应对未来所面临的人口及耕地资源压力,在建筑物或构筑物内部开展农业种植的新型农业生产模式。而综合体则是主要依托于地铁而建造的、多种功能纵向拓展的建筑或建筑群。

图1   土地立体化利用的案例[46,47,48,49,50]

Fig. 1   Cases of three-dimensional land use

目前中国北京、上海、深圳等大城市都开展了土地立体化利用,城市开发向地上地下空间延伸,土地分层分空间出让已逐步成为土地利用的重要形式。以深圳市为例,随着2005年在全国首次公开出让两宗地下空间使用权,土地空间使用权的分层设立开始进入土地管理的实践范畴;深圳市前海自贸区提出打造高标准立体化开发模式,地下地上开发面积比例约1 3,旨在建造高密度立体新城;深圳湾超级总部基地提出打造“深圳湾云城市”,大规模规划高层及超高层建筑,充分开展建筑空间的功能混合利用。长沙新河三角洲规划“人车竖向分离”道路系统,在海拔32 m标高设计快速便捷的机动车交通系统,在停车库屋顶规划全天候步行和非机动车交通系统,从而形成自上而下的人、车库、机动车三层立体交通格局,使该地区开发强度提高约40%,绿地率提高了20%以上[44]

除已开展实践的案例外,建筑领域的一些新兴思路也呼应了土地立体化利用行为,并有望付诸应用。如天九城市森林花园,将绿化、庭院、车位等搬到空中,将森林花园别墅建到高楼层(图1b)[45]

2.3 发展土地管理三维思维的现实性

支撑城市蔓延及土地平面利用的、秉承二维思维的土地管理理论和技术已经相当成熟,而随着城市发展及土地利用的三维探索,其已难以继续支撑实践管理,迫切需要拓展蕴含三维思维内涵的土地利用管理理论与方法( 郭仁忠. 土地问题的三维思维. 第六届全国土地资源管理博士生论坛,2015.)。

现行土地管理理论是在土地平面资源属性衍生的人权地关系认知的基础上形成的,重点关注的是土地表面的自然、社会、经济要素及内部机制。而土地立体化利用产生了脱离土地表层的要素存在,这种三维存在及运行机制,已超出二维的土地认知。例如,土地立体化利用产生垂直方向上功能、价格等的异质性,部分超出了基于平面规律认知而建立的地域分异理论、地租理论等基础理论。深圳湾口岸港方管理区是一个实际案例(图2),该区位于深圳,由港方管理和使用,对于该区域适用的法律类别(香港法律或大陆法律)及其对应的空间范围的确定,需要基于三维思维的理论和技术支撑。

图2   深圳湾口岸港方口岸区

Fig. 2   Shenzhen Bay port (port region on Hong Kong side)

现行土地管理技术旨在描述、分析和管理地表平面位置、关系、状态等信息,如土地平面宗地及用途的调查统计、土地表层资源的评价规划等,难以支撑地表以外三维延伸部分的定量定位分析管理。例如,同一宗地在分层开发后可形成地下、地表、地上多个相互独立的产权体,现行二维地籍将三维空间投影到二维平面上,以投影后的二维图形定义其范围,第三维信息仅用诸如楼层、高度、朝向等属性内容表述,未准确反映各地籍实体的空间位置及范围,难以确定产权体的空间位置“唯一性”。

现行土地管理制度主要是面向地表土地利用活动等设计的,无论是以产权为核心的征地和土地出让制度,还是以功能为核心的用途管制制度,在面向土地立体化利用时均呈现诸多不适应性。《物权法》虽已明确可在地表以外的三维延伸部分设立建设用地使用权,但关于该权利的类型、归属、空间分割、分类处置规则等均不明确,与土地平面分宗的产权管理如何协调尚不清楚。以深圳市某一依托轨道站点建设的地下车库为例,其产权在地面土地产权人与地下空间开发者之间存在强烈争执。再者,基于面积指标与平面布局的规划管理制度难以管理不同于地表用途的地上地下空间,以及采光权、通风权、通行权等蕴含三维特征的地上地下规划协调内容,也需确立新的管控秩序。

土地立体化利用涉及到发展理念、空间形态、要素流动等一系列变化,形成了具有典型三维特征的客观存在,如何认识、描述、组织、管理此类存在,迫切需要拓展蕴含三维内涵的思维模式,从三维视角审视土地、以三维思维管理土地,发展秉承三维思维的土地科学理论与技术方法。

3 土地空间资源概念的提出

3.1 土地的空间特质

土地概念有狭义及广义、平面及立体之分,其内涵随着时间推移和科学技术发展不断拓展[51,52,53,54,55,56,57]。狭义的平面土地系指地球表面的陆地部分,广义的平面土地系指整个地球表面;狭义的立体土地系指土壤、气候、地貌、岩石、生物和水文等要素构成的自然历史综合体,以及人类生产活动成果,系指地球表层;广义的立体土地则涵盖地球表层及其上、下的空间[54]。中国著名学者于光远先生也曾提出,土地通常所指的是地球表面上垂直投影的部分,但土地本身是立体的[58]。空间是与时间相对的一种物质客观存在形式,是事物存在或发生的三维区域,具有相对的位置和方向属性[59]。根据土地的概念内涵,土地是具有位置和方向属性的要素综合体,体现出空间性。且从立体土地的概念来看,土地具备形式的三维空间特征及内涵的综合要素特征。总体而言,土地具备空间特质,土地的物质客观存在本质上为空间的物质客观存在。

3.2 空间的资源特征

资源是指一切可被人类开发和利用的物质、能量和信息的总称,包括自然资源和社会资源。土地资源是自然资源,是指在一定技术条件和一定时间内可为人类利用的土地[60],具有稀缺性、可利用性等特征。与其他自然资源不同的是,土地资源强调的是土地对于人类的承载与使用功能,包括提供生产生活场所(居住地等)、提供生产生活要素(食物等)等。土地立体化利用体现了土地可利用的部分不仅是地表部分,地表上下的三维延伸空间,也将随着人类技术进步而得到一定程度的利用,体现出资源属性。而即使对于土地的平面利用,其土地资源的承载与使用功能实质上是反映在空间之中,如建设用地的功能实为建筑空间提供的商业、居住、公共服务等功能,农用地的功能实为农作物的物质及经济功能等。

行文至此,需要明确一个核心问题,即土地利用的本质是什么?之所以需要建立土地管理的三维思维,是因为土地利用是在三维空间实施的,土地利用本质上是对三维空间的占用。既往由于技术的限制和资源的充裕,人类仅基于地表开展土地利用,秉承二维思维的管理方法足以实施对土地资源的全面管理,因此第三维被忽略。当土地利用行为不再依附于地表时,土地利用对地表以上及以下空间的占用愈加凸显,并且,这种占用具有排他性。因此,类似于电磁波的频率、网络的地址和电话的号码,空间也是一种资源。土地成为资源的本质是空间的可利用性,就空间而言,其在一定技术条件下和一定时间内可被人类利用的部分即为资源。

3.3 土地空间资源的内涵与特征

基于土地的空间特质与空间的资源特征的辨识,为有效支撑土地立体化利用等三维式利用行为的组织管理,有必要构建基于三维思维的资源认知,将体现表层要素的土地资源外延至涵盖地表、地上、地下各类要素的土地空间资源,由土地的表层资源认知提升至土地的空间资源认知。土地空间资源是以土地表层为基底或脱离土地表层的可利用的三维空间存在,是自然资源的一种,是土地资源的三维拓展与延伸,是从人类可利用与支撑人类生产生活功能角度所界定的包括土地表层、地上、地下范围内的自然经济综合体,不同于土壤资源、气象资源、矿物资源、太空资源等,体现的是资源对于人类的承载、使用功能。例如,土壤资源突出的是土壤对于人类的种植开垦等功能,气象资源和矿物资源强调的是为人类生产生活提供原材料及能源的功能,太空资源体现的是针对人类航空航天活动的可利用功能。

土地空间资源的主要特征包括:① 自然客观存在性。土地空间资源是自然的产物,是自然形成的客观存在。② 容量增长与相对稀缺性。随着人类技术进步,土地空间资源的利用规模具有增长性,同时体现相对稀缺性。③ 三维形态。土地空间资源具有三维立体的物质形态,是三维空间存在。④ 综合属性。土地空间资源既具备自然属性,也具备社会经济属性。

4 土地空间资源管理的基本框架

土地空间资源管理是以土地空间资源为管理对象、以调控空间利用效益及调整空间关系为管理目标的管理活动,是三维思维下土地资源管理的延伸,涉及管理理念、理论、技术、制度上从二维到三维的突破与发展。

理念上,需要深化关于土地空间资源的认识,剖析其内涵与特性,梳理土地空间资源与土地资源的关系,梳理其与内部物质存在的关系,如水、气、生物等。理论上,需要探讨秉承三维思维的土地空间资源利用管理的基础理论,即基于土地分区理论、地租理论、地域分异理论、土地产权理论等,构建体现空间特质的理论体系。

技术上,需在探索空间信息三维感知与融合表达等调查技术的基础上,重点研究三维地籍技术、适应于土地空间资源特征的评价规划技术等。三维地籍可表达垂直方向上权籍的差异性,可注册、明晰和界定三维产权单元的空间权属及位置[19]图3)。应以三维地籍为核心开展空间产权体相关技术研究,探索三维产权单元的内涵及属性特征,研究三维产权体的构建、编码、测量技术,研究三维产权体数据模型构建技术、可视化表达技术、查询检索和维护更新技术,以及管理流程和规范标准等。

图3   二维宗地到三维宗地的转换、三维产权体的示意图

Fig. 3   The parcel transformation from two to three dimensions and the three-dimension property volume drawing

关于评价规划,当土地资源外延至土地空间资源后,将从平面土地分类功能的数量管理拓展至空间混合功能的综合管理。例如,现行土地利用规划中关于耕地规模、绿地面积、土地利用结构等管理内容,在土地空间资源认知下,将外延至耕地生产力、绿量、空间利用结构等内容。需要在思考土地立体化利用适宜性、土地空间资源禀赋等问题的基础上,分析立体空间发展模式下城市要素运行机制与空间机理,探讨立体开发模式下土地空间资源配置的管理要点与技术需求、与土地平面资源配置的衔接等,研究适用于立体空间异质性、管理内涵综合性等特征的效益评估、规划配置、优化调控等技术,包括构建赋予三维空间内涵的评价指标体系,研发面向空间结构与布局的调控模型,发展以三维空间为基本单元的空间规划指标、标准及技术,探索地上地表地下空间深度、精细化、协调的立体开发与节地规划技术。

制度上,需重点研究三维思维下土地空间资源权属、规划、供应管理制度的构建。权属管理包括土地空间资源的权利类型、权利归属、权属登记、分类处置、权属纠纷调处等,核心是在《物权法》等法律法规的基础上界定三维空间存在的权属管理规则,包括如何确定立体空间的所有权、使用权、相邻权、地役权、抵押权、租赁权等权利类型及内涵,如何界定权利所对应的空间范围及主体并进行登记、与现行平面宗地管理如何协调、因三维划分产生的权利冲突如何处理等。例如,地铁与上盖物业的权利分割、分割后与现行平面宗地的关系、权属变更规则等。关于规划管理,需研究构建适用于空间混合利用特征、面向空间利用综合管理的规划制度,主要包括如何在城市规划体系中嵌入关于土地空间资源的规划管理内容,如何调整现行以面积指标和土地平面用途为核心的土地规划制度,将其转变为适应三维空间的空间规划制度,规划管理指标如何进行相应调整,如何与现行用途管制制度进行衔接,以及由于立体利用而凸显的通行权、采光权等地上地下规划协调内容等如何管理。例如天桥、地铁等地表上下空间的建设活动如何进行用途管制,以及不同于地表的空间结构与功能如何进行管理等。关于供应管理,核心是如何构建适用于立体空间的三维审批与监管制度,主要包括三维产权体审批要点及出让合同的设计、混合利用情景下三维产权体的出让方式及与现行土地出让制度的衔接、三维空间供应价格确定机制、如何判断三维空间已达到供应条件、立体空间冲突如何处理、三维产权体的监管方式及要点等。最后,需在明晰三维思维下土地空间资源权属、规划、供应管理制度的基础上,梳理现行管理流程特征与三维立体管理流程要点,系统构建适应于三维立体利用对象、衔接现行管理的三维国土管理机制。

5 结论与讨论

秉承二维思维的土地管理理论方法支撑了人类的快速城市化进程,并将继续发挥其作用,但面临城市的立体化发展时显现出法律、制度、技术等多方面的局限性。基于三维思维的城市发展理念轨迹、土地资源紧缺及土地立体化利用发展趋势,结合土地思考的三维转变剖析,有必要进一步提升关于土地的认知,强化土地的空间特质、空间的资源特征,将土地的表层资源认知拓展至土地的空间资源认知,将土地资源管理拓展至土地空间资源管理,这既是符合土地自身的属性内涵、土地利用的现实需求,也是土地认知在三维思维下的演绎发展与探索突破,具有重要的理念性创新意义和时代需求性。基于土地空间资源的辨析,进而在现行土地管理理论方法的基础上发展、初探土地空间资源管理,对于促进土地领域科技发展及实践管理具有重要意义。从土地资源到土地空间资源,蕴含了视角、内涵、思维的全新转变,需要在进一步认识三维管理的需求、对象与内容的基础上,创新有关理论认识及科技方法,在本文初步剖析的基础上进行系统性研究与发展。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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研究目的:为保障地下空间合理利用,探讨中国地下空间权的确权登记现状及问题,并提出建议。研究方法:归纳演绎法,定性研究法。研究结果:(1)随着《物权法》的颁布实施,中国地下空间权利性质得以确定,本文从制度完善的角度出发,研究其权利登记制度具有十分重要的现实意义和参考价值。(2)中国地下空间权利登记各地情况不一,全国范围内的地下空间权利登记制度尚待建立。研究结论:加快确立地下空间权利登记制度,完善不动产登记制度,推进物权管理。

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[Zheng Meizhen, Zhu Guohua.

Analysis on the legislation for underground space property rights of land in China

. China Land Sciences, 2012, 26(4): 66-71.]

[本文引用: 1]     

[13] 付坚强. 土地空间权制度研究. 南京: 东南大学出版社, 2014.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Fu Jianqiang.Research on Land Space Property Rights. Nangjing: Southeast University Press, 2014.]

[本文引用: 1]     

[14] Stoter J E, Oosterom P J M V, Ploeger H D, et al. Conceptual 3D Cadastral Model Applied in Several Countries. FIG Working Week, Athens, Greece, May 22-27, 2004.

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[15] Stoter J E, Ploeger H D.

Property in 3D-registration of multiple use of space: Current practice in Holland and the need for a 3D cadastre

. Computers Environment and Urban Systems, 2003, 27(6): 553-570.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0198-9715(03)00014-0      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

A cadastral registration system provides insight in rights and limited rights related to (2D) parcels. In case of multiple use of space, the 2D parcel has shown its limitations. To illustrate this we describe two cases in this article. At our Department a research is carried out in collaboration with the Netherlands' Kadaster to study the 3D issue of cadastral registration in a fundamental way. During this research a prototype of a 3D cadastre was developed, in which rights established on 2D parcels can be represented in 3D (3D right-objects). We will give a description of this prototype and will demonstrate that the introduction of 3D right-objects improves the insight in the vertical component of rights considerably by applying this concept to the described cases. Future research will focus on the registration of 3D physical objects (objects as they occur in the real world). The last will require more drastic adjustments in the current cadastral registration system.
[16] 林亨贵, 郭仁忠.

三维地籍概念模型的设计研究

. 武汉大学学报信息科学版, 2006, 31(7): 643-645.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Lin Henggui, Guo Renzhong.

Design of 3D cadaster conceptual model

. Geomatics and Information Science of Wuhan University, 2006, 31(7): 643-645.]

[本文引用: 1]     

[17] 郭仁忠, 应申.

三维地籍形态分析与数据表达

. 中国土地科学, 2010, 24(12): 45-51.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-8158.2010.12.008      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

研究目的:建立三维地籍模型,描述三维地籍产权体并兼容二维地籍宗地,实现不同维度土地权属的统一管理和登记。研究方法:结合中国城市发展的实例和地籍管理需求,分析三维地籍基本形态,比较各类三维空间数据模型。研究结果:提出适应三维地籍管理功能需求的三维地籍空间数据模型及其相应的数据自动组织方法和思路。研究结论:三维地籍通过地理空间坐标这个“基因”来管理不动产,为土地和房产的统一登记提供了统一的技术框架,是对现行不动产管理技术的升级和超越。

[Guo Renzhong, Ying Shen.

Three-dimensional cadaster analysis and data delivery

. China Land Sciences, 2010, 24(12): 45-51.]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-8158.2010.12.008      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

研究目的:建立三维地籍模型,描述三维地籍产权体并兼容二维地籍宗地,实现不同维度土地权属的统一管理和登记。研究方法:结合中国城市发展的实例和地籍管理需求,分析三维地籍基本形态,比较各类三维空间数据模型。研究结果:提出适应三维地籍管理功能需求的三维地籍空间数据模型及其相应的数据自动组织方法和思路。研究结论:三维地籍通过地理空间坐标这个“基因”来管理不动产,为土地和房产的统一登记提供了统一的技术框架,是对现行不动产管理技术的升级和超越。
[18] 应申, 郭仁忠, 李霖. 三维地籍. 北京:科学出版社, 2014.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Ying Shen, Guo Renzhong, Li Lin.Three-dimensional Cadaster. Beijing: Science Press, 2014.]

[本文引用: 1]     

[19] Benhamu M, Doytsher Y.

Toward a spatial 3D cadastre in Israel

. Computers Environment and Urban Systems, 2003, 27(4): 359-374.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0198-9715(02)00036-4      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

This paper presents results of research dealing with geodetic and cadastral aspects of utilizing space above and below the surface. The research is being conducted at the Geodetic Engineering Division of the Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, as part of the doctoral studies of the first author. The principal objectives of the research are to find a cadastral–geodetic solution for utilizing above and below surface space and for defining the characteristics of the future analytical, three-dimensional and spatial cadastre that will replace the existing two-dimensional graphical surface cadastre in Israel. The research objectives are being realized by attaining the secondary research objectives: defining the future cadastral reality and developing a spatial cadastral model; defining guidelines for transition from the surface cadastre to the spatial cadastre; developing a model for registering property rights in all three spaces; developing models for managing spatial cadastre information and creating the geodetic–cadastral background for a legal solution of utilizing all land space.
[20] Guo Renzhong, Luo Ping, Jiang Renrong, et al.

3D Cadastre Oriented Reconstruction of Administrative Processes in Chinese Urban Land Management

. 3rd International Workshop on 3D Cadastres: Developments and Practices, 2012.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Focusing on the recent management problem of 3D land utilization in the administrative procedure in China, this paper firstly elaborates the basic characteristics of land ownership and management in China, and then introduces the main concepts and steps in the current urban land management procedure, and reveals the deficiency in supporting 3D utilization for urban regions. Finally, from the perspective of 3D space and regarding 3D cadaster management as the core, this paper presents new administrative procedure of urban land management reconstructed from the recent procedure.
[21] 袁占良, 张建霞, 张子平.

DEM技术在土地利用可视化中的研究与应用

. 测绘科学, 2006, 31(3): 119-120.

https://doi.org/10.3771/j.issn.1009-2307.2006.03.043      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

通过DEM、坡度及土地利用等地理信息的叠加,形象直观地反映出不同坡度条件下的土地利用情况,并且利用DEM的三维仿真模拟技术对土地利用信息进行三维可视化,从而为土地利用动态监测、分析与评价、决策与支持提供了技术保证,以便指导退耕还林、还牧、林果业的开发等工作。

[Yuan Zhanliang, Zhang Jianxia, Zhang Zhiping.

Research and application of DEM for visualization on land use

. Science of Surveying and Mapping, 2006, 31(3): 119-120.]

https://doi.org/10.3771/j.issn.1009-2307.2006.03.043      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

通过DEM、坡度及土地利用等地理信息的叠加,形象直观地反映出不同坡度条件下的土地利用情况,并且利用DEM的三维仿真模拟技术对土地利用信息进行三维可视化,从而为土地利用动态监测、分析与评价、决策与支持提供了技术保证,以便指导退耕还林、还牧、林果业的开发等工作。
[22] 陈飞, 吴英男.

基于数字高程模型和遥感影像的三维可视化

. 测绘科学, 2009, (S2): 127-129.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于数字高程模型和遥感影像的三维可视化在城市规划、土地利用等领域扮演着愈来愈重要的角色,本文系统的介绍了从地形三维建模、遥感影像处理到地形三维可视化的整个过程,着重分析了各种地形三维建模方法的优缺点,并对影响建模速度的关键环节加以改进。

[Chen Fei, Wu Yingnan.

The 3D visualization on digital elevation and remote sensing image

. Science of Surveying and Mapping, 2009, (S2): 127-129.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于数字高程模型和遥感影像的三维可视化在城市规划、土地利用等领域扮演着愈来愈重要的角色,本文系统的介绍了从地形三维建模、遥感影像处理到地形三维可视化的整个过程,着重分析了各种地形三维建模方法的优缺点,并对影响建模速度的关键环节加以改进。
[23] Auer S, Balz T, Becker S, et al.

3D SAR simulation of urban areas based on detailed building models

. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 2010, 76(12): 1373-1384.

https://doi.org/10.14358/PERS.76.12.1373      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper confirms the need for detailed 3D models for the simulation of high-resolution SAR images in order to support Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) focused on single urban objects. Using a building model enhanced by facade grammar, multiple reflections at building facades are analyzed using ray tracing techniques and scatterers are localized in azimuth, range, and elevation. In a case study, salient signatures of a TerraSAR-X image are analyzed based on simulated SAR reflectivity maps. Phase centers of trihedral reflections are mapped onto the building model and the physical correspondence of scatterers to building features is investigated. Surfaces contributing to salient scatterers are identified at the building model. Eventually, the use of SAR simulation to support PSI is shown from two aspects: (a) for providing a-priori information about building layover, and (b) for extending knowledge about the nature of dominant scatterers.
[24] 陈建忠, 盛业华, 孙云清.

利用城镇地籍数据快速构建城市三维模型的方法

. 中国土地科学, 2011, 25(3): 85-89.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-8158.2011.03.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

研究目的:利用2DGIS中城 镇地籍数据信息快速建立城市三维模型。研究方法:首先对城镇大比例数据进行归类,提取适合三维建模的点、线、面要素,然后对要素进行重新组织,利用 ArcScene,依据三维表达的要求,对地形背景建立DEM并与DOM叠加处理,界址点、控制点等点状地物建立三维独立地物符号库,一般建筑物按高度进 行拉伸,而对标志性建筑物采用三维建模软件按二维轮廓进行精细模型制作。研究结果:成功地对某市大比例尺城镇地籍数据进行三维可视城市三维模型构建。研究 结论:利用2DGIS中城镇地籍数据信息建立城市三维模型方法可行有效,有利于推进三维地籍的发展。

[Chen Jianzhong, Sheng Yehua, Sun Yunqing.

A rapid model for creating three-dimensional city model based on urban cadaster data

. China Land Sciences, 2011, 25(3): 85-89.]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-8158.2011.03.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

研究目的:利用2DGIS中城 镇地籍数据信息快速建立城市三维模型。研究方法:首先对城镇大比例数据进行归类,提取适合三维建模的点、线、面要素,然后对要素进行重新组织,利用 ArcScene,依据三维表达的要求,对地形背景建立DEM并与DOM叠加处理,界址点、控制点等点状地物建立三维独立地物符号库,一般建筑物按高度进 行拉伸,而对标志性建筑物采用三维建模软件按二维轮廓进行精细模型制作。研究结果:成功地对某市大比例尺城镇地籍数据进行三维可视城市三维模型构建。研究 结论:利用2DGIS中城镇地籍数据信息建立城市三维模型方法可行有效,有利于推进三维地籍的发展。
[25] 杨继文, 赵鹏飞, 邓蜀江, .

基于SuperMap的三维土地利用现状信息系统开发研究

. 测绘与空间地理信息, 2015, (5): 43-45.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

针对土地调查数据的应用需求,本文提出了利用Super Map,Javascript,HTML等技术集成开发"三维土地利用现状信息系统"的方法。对系统技术架构、功能、数据组织进行了设计,并完成系统的构建,实现土地调查数据的三维应用,扩大了土地调查数据成果的应用范围,提高了国土部门的信息化服务水平。

[Yang Jiwen, Zhao Pengfei, Deng Shujiang, et al.

Study on developing 3D land use status information system based on SuperMap

. Geomatics & Spatial Information Technnology, 2015, (5): 43-45.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

针对土地调查数据的应用需求,本文提出了利用Super Map,Javascript,HTML等技术集成开发"三维土地利用现状信息系统"的方法。对系统技术架构、功能、数据组织进行了设计,并完成系统的构建,实现土地调查数据的三维应用,扩大了土地调查数据成果的应用范围,提高了国土部门的信息化服务水平。
[26] 卓莉, 黄信锐, 陶海燕, .

基于多智能体模型与建筑物信息的高空间分辨率人口分布模拟

. 地理研究, 2014, 33(3): 520-531.

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201403011      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

自上而下的人口分布模拟模型自动化程度较低,难以分析人口分布成因,且因精细尺度的人口样本较难获取而不太适用于高空间分辨率人口分布模拟。提出了一种基于多智能体模型和建筑物信息的高空间分辨率人口分布模拟模型。首先利用建筑物三维分布数据提取住宅建筑,构建智能体人口分布模拟模型的环境;然后基于统计、调研数据定义智能体属性,确定智能体居住选择行为规则;最后以泰日社区为例进行了居住人口分布仿真模拟。研究结果表明,基于建筑物信息的人口分布多智能体模型,可以获取每栋建筑物上的人口,改进了当前高分辨率人口模拟主要只模拟小区或者居委会人口的不足;多智能体模型具有较高的自动化程度,不仅能获得较好的模拟结果,而且可在一定程度上从微观机理解释宏观居住分布模式,是对传统统计模型的有益补充。

[Zhuo Li, Huang Xinrui, Tao Haiyan, et al.

High spatial resolution population distribution simulation based on building information and multi-agent

. Geographical Research, 2014, 33(3): 520-531.]

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201403011      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

自上而下的人口分布模拟模型自动化程度较低,难以分析人口分布成因,且因精细尺度的人口样本较难获取而不太适用于高空间分辨率人口分布模拟。提出了一种基于多智能体模型和建筑物信息的高空间分辨率人口分布模拟模型。首先利用建筑物三维分布数据提取住宅建筑,构建智能体人口分布模拟模型的环境;然后基于统计、调研数据定义智能体属性,确定智能体居住选择行为规则;最后以泰日社区为例进行了居住人口分布仿真模拟。研究结果表明,基于建筑物信息的人口分布多智能体模型,可以获取每栋建筑物上的人口,改进了当前高分辨率人口模拟主要只模拟小区或者居委会人口的不足;多智能体模型具有较高的自动化程度,不仅能获得较好的模拟结果,而且可在一定程度上从微观机理解释宏观居住分布模式,是对传统统计模型的有益补充。
[27] 秦静, 方创琳, 王洋, .

基于三维计盒法的城市空间形态分维计算和分析

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[Qin Jing, Fang Chuanglin, Wang Yang, et al.

A three dimensional box-counting method for estimating fractal dimension of urban form

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[32] 日本建筑构造技术者协会. 日本结构技术典型实例100选: 战后50余年的创新历程. 滕征本, 滕煜先, 周耀坤, 等译. 北京: 中国建筑工业出版社, 2005.

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The compact city: Planning strategies, recent developments and future prospects in the Netherlands

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URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract The concept of the compact city is a key strategy to limit suburban sprawl and to obtain a more sustainable urban development. In the Netherlands, concepts for compact forms of urbanization have played a major role since more than half a century. In various Dutch national spatial policy documents different concepts for urban compaction and urban densification have taken a prominent position. The Second and Third National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (1966 and 1973) introduced the concept of 'clustered dispersal' and 'growth centres', whereas the Forth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning (1988) was based on the concept of the 'compact city'. More recently, the National Spatial Strategy (2004) set specific goals for so-called 'concentration areas' around greater urban conurbations and 'urban densification' in existing built-up areas. However, recently ambitions concerning spatial planning and urban compaction have been decentralized to the regional and municipal level and national funds supporting urban regeneration projects are about to face substantial cuts. Moreover, a number of recent studies and publications claim that urban densification is reaching its limits in several Dutch cities because of complex constellations of ownership, increasing costs and complicated legal procedures. This paper gives insight into recent developments of dwellings, inhabitants and jobs in Dutch cities and their surroundings. It raises the question if the recent developments can be described as compact urban developments. Furthermore, future possibilities for compact urban developments in the Netherlands are discussed.
[35] Daniels T.

Smart Growth: A new american approach to regional planning

. Planning Practice & Research, 2001, 16(3/4): 271-279.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02697450120107880      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Durham, North Carolina, Virginia Beach, Virginia, Sonoma County, California, and Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, among others.There are two potential drawbacks to the urban growth boundary approach: affordable housing and constrained sprawl. By limiting the supply of buildable land, an urban growth boundary could drive up the price of land and housing. Also, good urban design within the boundaries which emphasises human-scale development, green spaces, mass transit and a pedestrian orientation is important to make living inside a growth boundary attractive. Otherwise, without design guidelines, growth within the boundary could be a constrained version of the usual uninspirin g residential and commercial sprawl.Both Oregon and New Jersey have responded to the affordable housing problem through `fair-share' housing legislation that requires cities and suburbs to provide affordable housing to accommodate a variety of income groups (Porter, 1997). Suburbs, for example, must zone land for multifamily housing, not just large single-family house lots.Greater Portland, Oregon is working to minimise sprawl by developing reliable mass transit that is tied to compact, mixed-use settlements. The Portland metro region is served by a light rail system and is pioneering the creation of `transit-oriente d developments' that combine a mix of residential and commer- cial developments with mass transit. In the Orenco Station project, west of Portland, 1800 units of housing are being built on 200 acres, together with traditiona l three-storey commercial buildings . There is a range of housing types, from condominium s to single-family homes, and one-third of the housing units are designated for rental housing. Orenco Station is within walking distance of a light rail station, connecting to downtown Portland (Livable Oregon, 1999).A key ingredient in attracting new residents and private investment to downtowns is the remediation and re-development of brown eld sites, properties that have been contaminated with hazardous waste. The US Conference of Mayors has cited brown eld clean up and liability protection for developers as their leading issue (Daniels, 1999b). Zoning ordinances that do not rigidly separate uses but allow a mix of residential and commercial development will also be essential to improve livability and a pedestrian orientation. Historic preservation and the re-use of older buildings can be very helpful in bringing in new businesse s and residents and creating tourist attractions.A further contributing factor to sprawl in America is the many small units of local government that are often reluctant to cooperate with each other. One reason is that local governments rely heavily upon local property taxes (known as rates in the UK), and hence compete for development that will expand the tax base. The outcome is often uncoordinated land-use planning and regional sprawl. But many land-use and infrastructure issues transcend individual city, suburban and county boundaries. Transportation, solid waste, public sewer and water, and future growth are all issues that point to the need for regional responses.Metro of Greater Portland, Oregon is America's only elected regional govern- ment, encompassing three counties and 24 municipalities. Metro has control of regional land-use planning, transportation, and utility development (Daniels, 1999b). In the spring of 1999, the State of Georgia created a regional transporta- tion authority with control over transportatio n and land use in Greater Atlanta,
[36] Knaap G J, Frece J W.

Smart growth in Maryland: Looking forward and looking back

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[37] 冯仑. 冯仑:

用立体城市实践新型城镇化

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[Feng Lun.

Feng lun: New urbanization practice in Great City

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[38] Freedom Ship.Freedom Ship International: The city at sea. , 2017-12-11.

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The vertical farm: Controlled environment agriculture carried out in tall buildings would create greater food safety and security for large urban populations

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s00003-010-0654-3      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Over the next 50 years, rapid climate change issues will play a major role in agriculture. It is estimated for every 1 of increase in atmospheric temperature, 10 % of the land where we now grow food crops will be lost. The ability of governments to provide essential services for its citizens, and in particular to maintain systems that provide a reliable and safe food and water supply becomes more and more problematic. In less developed countries, other problems also exist that will become magnified because of global warming. For example, diseases transmitted by fecal contamination, such as cholera, typhoid fever and a plethora of parasitic infections, are commonplace where human excrement is used as fertilizer (an estimated 50 % of all farming on the planet). These infections are in large part responsible for widespread poverty and illiteracy. Geo-helminths, alone, cripple enormous numbers of children and adults alike. Heavy infections with ascaris, hookworm and whipworm can permanently reduce a child capacity for learning, and the diarrheal diseases they cause routinely keep them out of school. Illiteracy, malnutrition, and poverty are the result. Today, even in more developed countries where many of these kinds of infectious diseases have been either eradicated or are under control, food safety and security issues dominate the headlines. Over the last 5 years, in the United States alone, food recalls due to bacterial infectious diseases have resulted in billions of dollars of lost income. In traditional farming, a plethora of plant pathogens (e.g., rice blast, wheat rust) and insect pests (e.g., locusts) account for staggering losses of crops worldwide, further pushing the yields of most grain and vegetable crops towards lower and lower limits. Soil erosion due to floods and droughts completes the picture of climate change issues that have already significantly reduced where we can grow our food. The majority of environmental experts agree that farming as we know it will become marginalized over the next 50 years, as climate changes accelerate even more due to deforestation. This is because forests are being sacrificed for farmland. The consequence of this activity is that the carbon cycle is out of balance and will only get worse if nothing is done on a global scale. Controlled environment agriculture is one answer to reversing this situation. Greenhouse technologies are well-established and guarantee a safer, more reliable food supply that can be produced year round, and they can be located close to urban centers. By tacking these buildings on top of each other in an integrated well-engineered fashion, we can greatly reduce our agricultural footprint, and the vertical farm concept can then be applied to every urban center, regardless of location.
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-012-0262-3      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This study shows that greening the building envelope with vertical greening systems such as climbing plants or living wall systems provides ecological and environmental benefits. Contemporary architecture in fact is increasingly focusing on vertical greening systems as a means to restore the environmental integrity of urban areas, biodiversity and sustainability. Applying green fa莽ades, which is an established feature of contemporary urban design, can offer multiple environmental benefits on both new and existing buildings and can be a sustainable approach in terms of energy saving considering materials used, nutrients and water needed and efficient preservation of edifices. To provide a full perspective and a viable case study on vertical greening systems a process tree is developed throughout this research. Elaborating the process tree has proved to be a useful methodology to analyse main parameters as climate and building characteristics, avoid damages and maintenance problems caused by inappropriate design, and compare different elements such as technologies, materials, durability, dimensions, and plant species employed.
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Mainstreaming sustainable development into a city's master plan: A case of urban underground space use

. Land Use Policy, 2009, 26(4): 1128-1137.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.02.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The paper offers an analysis of Urban Underground Space (UUS) use and its influence on cities’ sustainability. It has been widely recognized that urban land is a valuable resource. During recent decades UUS, especially in big cities, has become a scarce and valuable resource. This paper outlines UUS use, including some quantitative descriptors and an analysis of its historical evolution. Historic top-down development of Urban Underground Infrastructure (UUI) and shortcomings in its planning have resulted in a lack of available UUS for new developments. A sectoral approach to UUS development and UUS availability on a first-come-first-served basis does not allow the full benefits that UUI can provide for urban sustainability. This paper recognizes UUS as a valuable non-renewable resource, which requires careful consideration during city planning. It focuses on the need and opportunities for mainstreaming UUS into cities’ Master plans. To facilitate this, UUS services are listed and classified; their characteristics are identified and discussed. UUS users are also identified and possible conflicts between them are discussed. State-of-the-art consideration of UUS in cities’ Master plans is critically analyzed and suggestions are made for mainstreaming UUS and sustainability issues into Master plans. It is recommended that the following are implemented: three-dimensional planning; prioritizing UUS services; studying prospective functional and spatial interrelations between different types of infrastructures; and integrated assessment.
[42] 白韵溪, 陆伟, 刘涟涟.

基于立体化交通的城市中心区更新规划: 以日本东京汐留地区为例

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https://doi.org/10.11819/cpr20140713a      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

以日本东京汐留地区城市更新项目为例,在简要回顾其发展历史的基础上,首先从土地利用、官民合作、公共空间、建筑控制、遗产保护等方面论述了该地区由废弃的货运站转变为城市新副中心的更新规划策略;进而探讨其步行、车行和轨道交通的立体式交通规划特征;最后通过总结其更新规划的成功经验和负面影响,提出在城市更新规划中应倡导“繁荣具有活力”、“绿色有机”、“立体化”、“可识别”等理念,以期为我国当前城市中心区的更新与发展规划提供借鉴.

[Bai Yunxi, Lu Wei, Liu Lianlian.

Urban renewal planning in city center based on three-dimensional transport: Acase study of Shiodome in Tokyo, Japan

. Urban Planning, 2014, 38(7): 76-83.]

https://doi.org/10.11819/cpr20140713a      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

以日本东京汐留地区城市更新项目为例,在简要回顾其发展历史的基础上,首先从土地利用、官民合作、公共空间、建筑控制、遗产保护等方面论述了该地区由废弃的货运站转变为城市新副中心的更新规划策略;进而探讨其步行、车行和轨道交通的立体式交通规划特征;最后通过总结其更新规划的成功经验和负面影响,提出在城市更新规划中应倡导“繁荣具有活力”、“绿色有机”、“立体化”、“可识别”等理念,以期为我国当前城市中心区的更新与发展规划提供借鉴.
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谈交通建筑综合体中复合型的城市公共空间营造: 以日本京都车站为例

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[Qian Caiyun, Zhou Yang.

The discussion on the construction of compound urban public space in transportation complex: Take the case of Kyoto station in Japan

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长沙试验城市节约集约用地新模式

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URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

正本刊讯"新河三角洲节地模式"是长沙市在旧城改造中节约集约用地的一种新尝试。新河三角洲地区是长沙市主要的棚户区之一,人口稠密,需安置的企业和居民量大,在长沙市决定对该区域进行统一规划建设后,不少开发商都望而却步。

[Hong Wang.

Changsha practice economical intensive land use model

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URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

正本刊讯"新河三角洲节地模式"是长沙市在旧城改造中节约集约用地的一种新尝试。新河三角洲地区是长沙市主要的棚户区之一,人口稠密,需安置的企业和居民量大,在长沙市决定对该区域进行统一规划建设后,不少开发商都望而却步。
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天九城市森林花园建筑模式应用研究

. 江苏建筑, 2016, (4): 5-7.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1005-6270.2016.04.002      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在中国城市住宅逐步走向高密度和高容积率特征的发展过程中,能够改善人们居住环境的设计手段受到重视.天九城市森林花园建筑模式秉承了建筑史上多个经典作品的设计思想,遵循着生态和可持续发展的观念,是我国现阶段在不具备较发达经济、技术条件情况下进行生态建筑创作的一种努力方向[1],但就其真正应用到实际中还面对很多问题,文章介绍了天九城市森林花园建筑模式的理念,将要面对的问题,发展展望.

[Xu Yanjun, Zhang Minli, Wang Yanting, et al.

Research on the application of Tianjiu urban forest garden building model

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https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1005-6270.2016.04.002      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在中国城市住宅逐步走向高密度和高容积率特征的发展过程中,能够改善人们居住环境的设计手段受到重视.天九城市森林花园建筑模式秉承了建筑史上多个经典作品的设计思想,遵循着生态和可持续发展的观念,是我国现阶段在不具备较发达经济、技术条件情况下进行生态建筑创作的一种努力方向[1],但就其真正应用到实际中还面对很多问题,文章介绍了天九城市森林花园建筑模式的理念,将要面对的问题,发展展望.
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