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地理研究 >

2018 , Vol. 37 >Issue 10: 2075 - 2086

DOI: https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201810015

智慧社会下的城市地理学研究——基于居民活动的视角

  • 王波 , 1, 2 ,
  • 卢佩莹 , 1, 2 ,
  • 甄峰 3, 4
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  • 1. 香港大学地理系,香港 999077
  • 2. 香港大学深圳研究院,深圳 518000
  • 3. 南京大学建筑与城市规划学院,南京 210093
  • 4. 江苏省智慧城市设计仿真与可视化工程实验室,南京 210093
通讯作者:卢佩莹（1970- ）,女,中国香港人,教授,博士生导师,研究方向为交通、电子通讯和社会关系。 E-mail:

作者简介：王波（1987- ）,男,湖南衡阳人,博士,研究方向为城市与区域发展、智慧城市、城市地理。E-mail:

收稿日期: 2018-04-05

  网络出版日期: 2018-10-20

基金资助

国家自然科学基金项目（41571146,416711540）

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Urban geography research in the e-society: A perspective from human activity

  • WANG Bo , 1, 2 ,
  • Becky P. Y. LOO , 1, 2 ,
  • ZHEN Feng 3, 4
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  • 1.Department of Geography, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China
  • 2.Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China
  • 3.School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
  • 4.Jiangsu Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Smart City Design Simulation & Visualization, Nanjing 210093, China;

Received date: 2018-04-05

  Online published: 2018-10-20

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摘要

智慧社会下,信息通信技术已经渗透到居民日常生活中各个方面的网络/实体活动经历,是理解智慧社会发展的核心。同时,虚拟—实体空间关系、网络—实体活动关系及其对城市地域空间重构与演化的影响一直得到城市地理学者的广泛关注。在综述已有居民活动时空间研究的基础上,指出智慧社会下居民网络—实体活动的关系已经超越简单的替代—促进二元关系,而承载网络与实体活动的虚拟与实体空间也相互交织影响,挑战对实体空间中地方与移动性的理解,并重构虚拟空间中的秩序和规律,丰富智慧社会下城市地理学的研究问题。超越技术决定论与基于技术决定论的虚实空间二元论的讨论范畴,更能反映城市地理学在智慧社会发展话语体系中的地位。与发达国家不同,中国同时经历着快速的信息化与城镇化,对居民网络/实体活动组织及虚拟—实体空间关系的研究不仅提供了新的案例与理论贡献,而且为城镇化的可持续发展提供实践策略。

关键词： 智慧社会; 网络活动; 实体活动; 虚实空间二元论; 技术决定论

本文引用格式

王波 , 卢佩莹 , 甄峰 . 智慧社会下的城市地理学研究——基于居民活动的视角[J]. 地理研究, 2018 , 37(10) : 2075 -2086 . DOI: 10.11821/dlyj201810015

Abstract

Overall, the academic research and government/media reports regarding the development of e-society mainly focus on technological progress. The ubiquitous influence of information and communication technology (ICT) on people and the society, however, is largely ignored. The fact is that a multitude of ICT has been penetrated into almost every sphere of people's daily life in the e-society, which exists in their everyday e-activities/physical activities experience. Therefore, the impact of ICT on people and the society, as the key to the understanding of e-society, has emerged in people's e-activities/physical activities experience. Urban geographers have devoted much attention to investigation of the virtual-physical space and e-activities-physical activities relationships and their potential (or actual) effects on the evolution of urban spatial development. Based on a review of spatial-temporal activity literature, this paper points out that the e-activities-physical activities relationship has gone beyond the simple substitution-generation relation. And the virtual and physical space which bear the e-activities and physical activities have interrelated complicatedly, which is far beyond the assumed virtual-physical space dichotomy. This complicated interrelationship has further challenged our traditional understanding of the place and mobility in the physical space and reshaped the orders and rules of virtual space. Furthermore, the exploration beyond the virtual-physical dualism which is stemmed from the technological determinism also highlights the important role of urban geographers in analyzing and guiding the development of e-society. Unlike developed countries where informatization lags behind urbanization, China experiences the rapid urbanization and informatization simultaneously. The research on the interrelationship between physical space and virtual space through human activities/e-activities not only contributes to enriching the literature with new cases but also provides empirical insights for sustainable urbanization in the e-society.

Key words： e-society; e-activity; physical activity; virtual-physical space dichotomy; technological determinism

主旨聚焦:基于居民活动的视角分析虚拟—实体空间关系,有助于更好理解智慧社会发展的地理特征,凸显城市地理学在智慧社会发展及其影响研究中的价值,并为新型城镇化实践提供科学依据。

1 引言

2000年,八国集团（Group of Eight）在日本冲绳发布的《全球信息社会冲绳宪章》中指出,信息通信技术（Information and communication technology,ICT）是塑造21世纪社会经济发展“最强大”的动力之一。自20世纪90年代以来,以互联网为代表的ICT在全球范围内快速发展。特别是随着以智能手机、Ipad等小型移动通信设备的普及,以及以3G/4G/5G网络、WIFI等信息网络发展,移动信息化（mobile informatization）代表ICT发展的新趋势[1]。在这一新趋势下,人们可以随时（anytime）、随地（anywhere）连接互联网,并促进了网络办公、网络购物、网络金融、网络政务、网络社交等一系列网络活动（e-activities）的普及与应用。与实体活动相对应,网络活动指借助ICT在虚拟空间中信息获取/处理的相关活动。当前,ICT已经融入到绝大部分居民日常生活的各个方面,智慧社会（e-society）已经到来并快速发展[2]。作为生活/工作在科技创新中心的城市居民,在智慧社会下,ICT的发展将进一步深入影响他们的日常生活[3,4],并重构城市与区域的空间组织与发展[5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12]。作为以人地关系为核心的地理学研究,不少城市地理学者从城市地域空间结构变化的视角探讨了ICT发展给居民生活带来的影响。但无论是从整体学术研究,还是新闻媒体或政府报告来看,城市地理学者在智慧社会发展及其影响的讨论中仍然处于话语权的边缘地位,缺少对学术研究方向与政府政策制定的足够影响力[8]。
近20年来,城市地理学者一直都在回应“地理的死亡/终结”观点,探讨ICT是促进集聚还是扩散、城市集聚优势是增强还是弱化的问题[13,14]。这些研究展现了实体地域内制度、文化、社会等要素是如何影响虚拟空间中的物质要素与技术扩散,空间集聚和路径依赖特征,回应了智慧社会发展中地理重要性的怀疑[15,16]。追根溯源,这一怀疑的根源在于整体学术研究或新闻媒体中,对智慧社会的理解过于局限在技术范畴,并将智慧社会发展等同于ICT的不断突破。在技术决定论的影响下,智慧社会的发展及其影响被认为普遍存在,不因人因地而异,从而导致虚拟空间与实体空间的二元划分体系。在虚实空间二元论中,虚拟空间与实体空间被认为是相互独立的[17,18];虚拟空间被抽象得阐述为一个容纳（在实体空间中）“无形”物质要素的空间[7,8,17],与实体空间是相互分离的[17,18]。因此,对注重有形物质要素空间布局的地理学研究,虚拟空间发展似乎已经超越了地理学的研究范畴。但是,也有部分国内外地理学者通过对互联网基础设施、互联网网站、互联网协议地址以及互联网用户等虚拟空间要素的实体空间布局研究,探讨实体空间中的距离衰减、集聚/分散,极化/均衡效应是否仍然在虚拟空间中作用[19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28]。值得肯定的是,这些研究反映了地理学者在探讨虚拟空间与实体空间关系上的突破,将虚拟空间中的要素纳入到地理学研究的范畴,呼吁虚拟空间与实体空间是不可分离的。但是,已有研究议题仍大多聚焦在对ICT是否会导致空间集聚与极化效应的消失（或降低）,从而带来城市集聚优势的降低—增强这一线性式（非此即彼）的探讨[13,14]。需要指出的是,随着智慧社会的快速发展,越来越多的居民活动时空间研究发现,现代生活中的网络活动与实体活动已经交织在一起,网络—实体活动的关系较替代（substitution）—促进（generation）更为复杂[1,2,29,30]。而作为承载居民网络与实体活动的虚拟与实体空间之间相互作用,给城市地域空间演化带来更多元的影响,并为城市地理学研究带来了更丰富的研究议题。
基于此,本文首先强调对智慧社会的理解应当超越技术范畴,转而重视ICT对个人和社会的影响。并且,这些影响已经反映在居民日常生活中包括社会、经济、政务等各个方面的网络/实体活动中。其次,在人本主义思潮下,城市空间的研究视角逐渐从物质、经济要素转向对人的关注[31,32],居民的时空间行为研究开始兴起[33,34,35]。作为虚拟/实体空间的相互关系媒介,居民网络/实体活动经历是智慧社会下城市地理学研究的重要切入点之一[32,35]。进一步,综述网络活动与实体活动的研究进展,指出智慧社会下,网络活动与实体活动早已超越了简单的替代—促进二元关系,从而导致虚拟空间与实体空间的复杂关系。因此,智慧社会下的城市地理学研究应当超越基于技术决定论的虚实空间二元论讨论范畴,从居民活动的视角更加全面地探讨智慧社会下城市地域空间的重构与演化,进一步凸显城市地理学在智慧社会发展及其影响研究中的价值。选取现代城市生活中的三个主要方面（即：家、工作地、交通）,阐述虚拟空间中的网络活动是如何影响到实体空间中的地方与移动性理解,以及这一影响及虚拟空间的实体特征。不同于发达国家,中国当前正在同时经历快速的城镇化与信息化[4],居民在虚拟/虚拟空间中的网络/实体活动更加复杂与独特。在最后的总结与讨论中,强调智慧社会下的中国城市地理研究无论是在理论探讨还是城镇化实践上都具有特殊的意义;而当前蓬勃发展的“大数据”与传统的“小数据”也为这类研究提供了数据上的支撑[36,37]。

2 理解智慧社会：超越技术范畴

智慧社会的快速发展,受到政府、公共组织、商业、科研界的广泛关注。这其中,一个共同的意识是构建一个完整的分析框架去理解和评估地方（国家、区域、城市）的智慧社会发展进程,从而引导政府制定合理的政策,保证智慧社会的发展能够惠及到每个人[38]。在国际电信联盟（International Telecommunication Union,ITU）2003年的日内瓦行动计划与2005年的突尼斯议程报告中,都强调要在全球范围内推动各个国家/地区智慧社会发展的评估工作,从而为各个国家/地区的智慧社会发展提供指引。在这一背景下,ITU与经济合作与发展组织（Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD）每年都会发布对全球以及各个国家/地区智慧社会发展评估的权威报告。但从评估指标体系来看,无论ITU还是OECD的评估报告都仅仅关注ICT基础设施及普及度,呈现出浓厚的技术关注与取向。以ITU的“Measuring the Information Society”为例,评估指标体系包含以下三大块：① ICT基础设施与获取（ICT infrastructure and access）,例如每百人固定电话/移动电话数、国际固定宽带、家庭电脑数量、家庭网络连接比例等指标;② ICT使用（ICT use and intensity of use）：互联网用户数、固定/移动宽带用户数等指标;③ ICT使用技巧和能力（ICT skills and the capacity to use ICT effectively）：成人识字率、高等大专/大学录取率等指标[39]。虽然这些指标捕捉了ICT技术的进步以及其如何被更广泛的人群使用,但忽视了ICT是如何影响到个人和社会的各个方面。
显然,智慧社会的发展并不是一蹴而就,而是一个在多个方面螺旋式共同发展的一个过程;ICT的发展仅仅是其中一部分[2]。社会作为人的集合,是人们相互关系的集合。智慧社会最核心的特征是ICT在居民日常生活中各个方面的应用以及这些应用如何影响到个人和整体社会的社会、经济、政治发展。总体来看,这些应用恰恰体现在为满足各类社会、经济、政治需求的居民网络/实体活动中[4]。随着智慧社会的持续发展,ICT将逐步融入到居民日常生活中的各类活动组织中[29]。因此,对智慧社会的理解应该超越简单的技术范畴,在关注ICT发展的同时,侧重ICT对个人和社会的影响分析（图1）。
Fig. 1 The conceptual of the progress of e-development[4]修订。

图1 智慧社会发展的分析框架
注：基于Loo等

首先,ICT的发展为个人提供了价格更加合理、使用更加便捷的相关硬件设备和软件服务,促进信息在虚拟空间中获取/传递/处理的高效性,并赋予社会中不同社会经济属性的个体使用ICT的需求和权益,从而打破信息垄断。这将逐步影响个人获取/处理信息方式的选择,便利和推动各类网络活动在居民日常生活中的开展。其次,对个人而言,日常生活主要涉及到社会、经济、政务三个相互影响的方面。而对于每一个方面,都有相对应的网络活动。例如,在经济方面,有网络办公、网络购物、网络金融等;在社会方面,有网络社交、网络教育、网路医疗等;在政务方面,有网络政务信息公开、咨询与处理等。而随着各类网络活动的流行与普及,又会增进个人对ICT的发展期望。最后,由于个人的差异性（生活方式、社会经济属性、心态的不同）,社会中的个人使用ICT以及开展网络活动的具体选择也不尽相同。当前,越来越多的研究或报告表面,社会中的个人在ICT的拥有和使用上并不均等,“数字鸿沟”仍然是当前各个国家/地区智慧社会发展面临的最大挑战之一[40,41]。而随着网络活动的更加普及对人们日常生活各个方面影响的加大,信息获取及网络活动参与的不平等及将进一步扩大社会中个体的差异,使得智慧社会的发展并没有惠及到更多人群[42]。但同时也应该认识到,随着某类网络活动的大规模普及,将促使越来越多的个人选择该类网络活动（例如：微信、滴滴打车）,从而推动社会中更多的个体主动/被动的去适应智慧社会的发展。
由此可见,智慧社会决不仅仅指代ICT,智慧社会的发展也并不等同于ICT的进步及其普及。相反,ICT的发展与个人、社会相互影响。智慧社会的进步反映在ICT、个人、与社会三个方面的螺旋式发展过程中[2,4]。因此,对智慧社会的理解应该超越技术决定论。正如不少反对技术决定论的学者所指出,即使是在相似的技术条件下,由于个人和社会的差异,社会的发展进程也会各不相同[43,44]。智慧社会下,随着ICT的快速发展,各类网络活动层出不穷,并在居民的日常生活和社会的发展中扮演着更加重要的角色[29,30,45]。因此,对居民网络/实体活动的研究,是理解智慧社会及其发展的重要方面。城市地理学研究一直关注居民活动空间规律,特别是近年来网络活动对实体活动及实体空间发展的影响[46,47,48]。因此,从居民活动的视角来看,城市地理学在智慧社会的发展及其影响研究中理应占据重要的位置。

3 超越虚实空间二元论的智慧社会城市地理学研究：基于居民活动的视角

基于居民活动视角,更加全面地思辨虚拟—实体空间关系,是彰显城市地理学研究在智慧社会发展及其影响研究价值的一个重要方面。本节首先回顾网络活动与实体活动之间关系的相关研究,指出随着智慧社会的发展,两者的关系已经超越简单的替代—促进二元关系,而是呈现出更加复杂的相互作用关系。其次,承载居民网络与实体活动的虚拟与实体空间也相互交织影响,挑战着我们对实体空间中地方与移动性的理解,并重构虚拟空间中的秩序和规律,丰富智慧社会下城市地理学的研究问题。

3.1 网络活动与实体活动关系的思辨

受基于技术决定论的虚实空间二元论影响,虚拟空间中的网络活动与实体空间中的实体活动也被长期认为是相互独立的,两者的关系被线性式地假设为替代（substitution）—促进（generation）关系[45,49,50]。大量的研究关注网络活动能否或多大程度上能够替代实体活动,从而降低城市中心的吸引力和减少相对应的交通出行[51,52,53,54,55]。例如,网络购物是否会替代实体购物,从而减少市中心实体购物场所的需求和相对应的购物出行;网络购物是否会促进更多的实体购物需求,从而增进市中心实体购物场所的吸引力和相对应的购物出行[53,54,55]。
但是,在智慧社会下,越来越多的近期研究证据表明,网络活动与实体活动的关系相较于简单的替代—促进关系更加复杂[1,29,45,56,57]。除了替代与促进关系,学者们还归纳出改变（modification）与中性（neutrality）等其他两种关系[30,45]。其中,改变指网络活动的出现对活动顺序、时间和地点的一系列变化;中性则指网络活动的出现对居民日常活动组织几乎没有影响。但从已有研究结论的归纳来看,网络活动与实体活动间长远意义上的相互关系仍然难以定论,特别是随着智慧社会的不断发展（体现在ICT技术的不断进步与对个人和社会影响的加大）[45]。此外,少部分学者跳出对网络活动与实体活动两者线性关系的讨论,开始思考居民网络/实体活动、时间、空间之间的复杂关系。一方面是活动的破碎化（fragmentation）,借助ICT,活动被拆分成细小的环节,并按新的次序在不同的时间与地点开展[58,59,60];另一方面是多任务（multi-tasking）,借助ICT,多个活动被允许同时进行[61,62]。因此,智慧社会下居民的日常生活已经由网络活动与实体活动在时空维度上交织在一起,甚至难以严格区分网络活动与实体活动的时空维度。基于此,虚拟空间与实体空间的关系也不再是简单的相互独立关系,而是呈现在居民的网络活动与实体活动的复杂关系中。

3.2 虚拟空间与实体空间关系的思辨

Kellerman在对互联网的地理学阐述讨论中,特别强调“指令空间”（Action Space）的概念,指出互联网用户在电脑/手机等界面的操作联系了互联网/虚拟空间与实体空间[9]。甄峰提出“灰空间”的概念,作为虚拟空间与实体空间相互影响与融合形成的过渡性空间[63]。总体来看,两者均强调在虚拟空间与实体空间的相互作用中存在着重要的主体—人（互联网用户）。更进一步看,可以认为互联网用户的网络活动与实体活动是虚拟空间与实体空间相互作用的媒介[9,63]。智慧社会下居民的日常生活,实体活动与网络活动、时空同步与时空异步相互交织,导致实体空间与虚拟空间的复杂相互作用关系,从而超越实体空间与虚拟空间非此即彼的二元关系,给城市与区域空间组织带来更多元的影响。本节选取现代城市生活中的三个主要方面（即：家、工作地、交通）,展示基于居民网络/实体活动的虚拟空间与实体空间的相互作用是如何影响实体空间中的地方与移动性以及这一影响及虚拟空间的实体特征。
3.2.1 实体空间中的地方与移动性 相比较实体空间中的实体活动,虚拟空间中的网络活动面临更小的约束,并不再局限于特定的时间和地点[1]。在互联网的接入下,一系列网络活动几乎可以在任何地方任何时间进行,从而导致活动与活动空间的分离[29],并挑战了城市地理学对地方与移动性的传统理解。
在地理学研究中,地方的内涵基于其空间范围内的主要活动内容[64]。Harris等指出城市的本质体现在城市土地利用结构及其所对应的活动功能[65]。例如,商业区、工业区、居住区与交通基础设施分别对应了就业、居住与交通活动。基于地方与活动的对应关系,依据活动空间的合理组织来规划土地利用结构也是现代城市规划的基石[66]。但在智慧社会下,虚拟空间中的网络活动正在改变基于静态/固定的地方与活动间的对应关系。如图2所示,由于居民可以随时随地的开展网络活动,从活动内容看,地方的内涵可能呈现出综合化的趋势[67]。例如,家在传统的城市地理学研究中一直被理解为维系家庭关系的居住空间[68]。但随着越来越多的家庭装备ICT,家中的一系列网络活动正在改变着居民对家这一空间的利用,从而改变对家的理解[69]。例如,在家网络办公或网络购物使得家有可能成为一个替代性的办公场所或购物场所,甚至发展为一个多功能的地方[69,70]。同时,由于地方的功能多元化,又可能进一步带来城市内部功能区之间边界的模糊[67]。例如,随着家可能发展为替代性的购物场所（在当前ICT支持下,从查询和比较商品信息—交易支付—取货,整个购物过程都可以在家完成）,可能导致居住区和商业区之间功能差异的缩小。因此,可以认为智慧社会下虚拟空间中的网络活动突破了实体空间中基于地方和功能区的静态/固定理解,从而带来城市内空间组织与发展的新问题与挑战。
同时,ICT与交通的快速发展推动了城市网络的形成。当前越来越多的研究表明城市网络中的城市发展越发离不开与其他城市间的联系[25]。城市的外部联系被视为城市的“第二本质”[71]。在智慧社会下,一方面,ICT为城市间的联系提供了多种“无形”的网络活动方式（如网络搜索、网络金融等）,促进了城市网络发展。另一方面,旅行中的一系列网络活动重新定义了旅行时间,并影响到居民在实体空间中的移动性[72,73]（图2）。
Fig. 2 The interrelationship between virtual space and physical space in the e-society

图2 智慧社会下虚拟空间与实体空间的相互作用关系

作为资本和信息的携带者,跨城人流在城市网络的形成与发展中具有决定性的作用[74]。在传统城市地理学与交通探究中,旅行时间一直被视为“低效”与“浪费”[75,76]。因此,在区域空间规划实践中,建设和升级交通基础设施一直是重点任务。但是,近年来对高铁、火车、汽车巴士的旅客交通时间利用调研来看,旅行中的网络活动越来越频繁,乘客的旅行时间利用更加高效[72,73,75,77]。这无疑将进一步影响到居民在城市网络中的移动性及其在城市网络中活动空间的安排（如出行满意度[78,79]、目的地的选择、居住地、就业地、休憩地的选择[80]）。因此,可以认为智慧社会下虚拟空间中的网络活动一方面促进了城市间的移动性,另一方面又给实体空间中移动性植入了新的内涵与功能,从而带来区域内城市间关系的新问题与挑战。
3.2.2 虚拟—实体空间相互作用及虚拟空间中的实体特征 虽然虚拟空间中的网络活动影响着实体空间中地方与移动性的理解,但考虑到人作为活动主体,其在实体空间中的社会、经济、政治环境也会影响居民在虚拟空间中的活动准则[5,8,81,82],从而导致虚拟空间与实体空间的相互作用也呈现出实体特征。一方面,居民的网络活动与实体活动因人而异。首先,性别、年龄、教育程度、职业、收入、小汽车拥有量、家庭架构等社会经济属性会影响到居民的网络活动[2,45]。其次,居民的网络/实体活动还受到文化、习惯、（自选择）态度等“主观”生活方式的影响[81]。同时,互联网使用年限与使用频率也会影响到居民在网络活动与相对应实体活动之间的选择[2,45]。更为重要的是,越来越多的地理学研究表明,与实体活动类似,网络活动也受到实体空间中（距离、时间）可达性、人口密度、用地多样性等地理环境要素的影响[29,53,70,83,84]。因此,由虚拟空间中网络活动带来实体空间中的地方与移动性的影响,也会呈现出实体特征。例如,家多大程度上能够发展为一个替代性的办公场所与购物场所的综合性功能受到个人社会经济属性、互联网使用、主观生活方式与邻里建设环境的影响[70]。同时,在旅途时间利用及其对居民在区域中的移动性影响也受到居民个体差异性及交通环境的影响[76,77,78,79]。
更为重要的是,虚拟空间也不是一个抽象的容纳“无形”要素的空间,而是一个连接人与信息,并借助居民的网络活动与实体空间相互作用的空间。作为虚拟空间中网络活动主体的居民,其实体活动经历也会重塑虚拟空间中的秩序和规律[8,85]。例如,当前智慧社会下借助虚拟空间“众筹众包”的创业项目发展迅速,网络办公已经成为大部分创业者（特别是互联网创业者）的重要工作方式,并对当前的办公空间组织形式带来一定影响[86]。但对集聚互联网创业者的联合办公空间调研发现,创业者的网络办公时间仍然主要集聚在联合办公空间内。联合办公空间的布局也带有明显的区位特征,例如临近市中心、靠近地铁站与大学校园、靠近风险资本公司等特征[87]。因此,可以认为不论是虚拟—实体空间相互作用给实体空间带来的影响以及虚拟空间本身都带有明显的实体特征。

4 结论与讨论

当前,中国智慧社会正处于快速发展时期[4]。随着中国已经拥有最大的互联网用户规模,中国已经成为全球智慧社会发展的主要代表案例,受到全球瞩目。中国当前的智慧社会发展也呈现出明显的互联网用户消费推动型特征[27]。在这一背景下,ICT对居民日常生活的渗透快速加深,进一步影响居民的网络/实体活动经历,从而带来虚拟空间与实体空间的复杂作用及其对实体空间中地方与移动性的影响。另一方面,与信息化同步的是快速的城镇化建设和发展,地理环境发生着变化,并具有可塑性。由于实体空间中地理环境对居民网络/实体活动的影响,虚拟—实体空间相互作用及其对地方与移动性的影响也受到地理环境的影响。因此,与发达国家先城镇化后信息化发展路径的不同,得益于早期实体空间中商业/公共服务设施布局的不合理（例如,城市郊区商业/公共服务设施的可达性低）,以网络购物为代表的网络活动得到快速发展与普及,这无疑将影响居民的生活方式,从而呈现出与发达国家不同的背景,为智慧社会发展及其对实体空间地方与移动性的影响提供了新的研究案例。近年来,空间概念及其相关术语（例如：空间/地方、距离等）已经成为各个学科（特别是社会科学）的重要分析视角[88]。从居民网络/实体活动经历视角的研究,更加全面地分析和阐述虚拟空间与实体空间的相互关系,有助于更好理解智慧社会发展的地理特征,增加城市地理学者在智慧社会的理论和实践层面讨论的话语权[8]。
同时,对虚拟空间与实体空间相互关系的研究也为中国当前的城镇化规划和建设实践提供了科学依据。在新型城镇化背景下,城镇化发展的重点从经济增长转型到对居民生活的关注。这其中,居民的网络/实体活动及其活动空间是其中重要的内容之一。一方面,虚拟空间与实体空间相互关系的研究有助于进一步了解实体空间中活动空间（包括静态/固定的地方/场所以及移动）的变化,更新智慧社会下居民网络/实体活动与活动空间的关系。另一方面,虚拟—实体空间相互作用的实体特征,也为实践中通过对土地利用、基础设施规划布局和建设来影响居民活动空间,提升城市运营效率提供了相关依据。从城市总体来看,在满足不同居民的多样化活动需求的同时又能减少不必要的（机动车）出行应当是实践中的重要准则。例如,研究表明,公共交通与商业/休憩服务设施的高可达性会促进居民在家办公而减少在家购物的选择[70]。但由于缺乏足够的证据说明在家办公与在家购物对居民活动空间乃至整个城市活动空间影响的正面或负面影响比较,因此仍然不能给予明确的政策建议。当前也已经有对智慧社会下居民活动空间理想状态的讨论和实践。例如,公共交通沿线的工作地提倡部分天在家办公（part-day home-based e-working）,保证职员可以提前/延迟上下班时间,从而在时间维度上延伸上下班高峰时期的交通流量,并被视为便利居民家庭—工作生活安排与缓解城市交通拥堵的重要政策建议[70,87]。但总体来看,由于当前的实证研究仍然不足,因此还难以就居民活动空间的理想状态形成一致的建议,仍有赖于更多的相关实证研究。
智慧社会下的城市地理学研究离不开居民时空活动数据的支撑[67]。相较于以往基于小样本的抽样问卷调查、活动日志及访谈,借助ICT记录的带有地理属性的居民时空活动大数据为更加精细化得研究居民网络/实体活动经历、虚拟空间与实体空间的相互关系及其对城市地域空间重构与演化提供了新的机遇和数据支撑[36,,90,91]。当前,微博数据、公交刷卡数据、出租车数据、手机信令数据、大众点评等网站数据、兴趣点（POI：point of interests）等大数据被广泛运用到对居民实空间活动空间及城市地域空间重构的研究中[91,92,93,94]。但值得注意的是,大数据与小数据也不是非此即彼的关系。大数据的分析能够更好地揭示居民网络/实体活动的规律及虚拟—实体空间的相互作用及其对城市地域空间发展的影响,而小数据则能够更好解释背后的影响要素与机制[37,95]。两者的结合,有助于深入理解智慧社会下的城市和区域发展新动向,并为中国新型城镇化规划和建设提供相关政策建议和科学依据。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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柴彦威, 沈洁. 基于活动分析法的人类空间行为研究. 地理科学, 2008, 28(5): 594-600.居民日常活动空间和城市日常活动系统是人类空间行为研究中的重要内容,直接反映行为空间形成机制、分布特征及其与实体空间的相互关系,并为城市社会生活及其空间体系研究提供了重要的微观视角。通过行为空间研究中若干关键问题进行探讨,认为基于日常活动空间的活动分析法能够很好的整合和处理这些问题,在对活动分析法相关概念和几个重要方法介绍的基础上,尝试提出基于活动分析法的人类空间行为研究的思路与框架。

DOI

[Chai Yanwei, Shen Jie.Activity-based approach to human spatial behavior research. Scientia geograohica Sinica, 2008, 28(5): 594-600.]

[12]
甄峰, 翟青, 陈刚, 等. 信息时代移动信息社会理论构建与城市地理研究. 地理研究, 2012, 31(2): 197-206.

[Zhen Feng, Zhai Qing, Chen Gang, et al.Mobile social theory construction and urban geographic research in the information era. Geographical Research, 2012, 31(2): 197-206.]

[13]
Graham S.The end of geography or the explosion of place? Conceptualizing space, place and information technology. Progress in Human Geography, 1998, 22(2): 165-185.This article critically explores how the relations between information technologies and space and place are being conceptualized in a broad swathe of recent writings and discourses on the geographies of ‘cyberspace’ and information technologies. After analysing the powerful role of spatial and territorial metaphors in anchoring current discourses about information technologies and society, the article goes on to identify three broad, dominating perspectives. These I label the perspective of ‘substitution and transcendence’ (dominated by technological Utopianists), the ‘co-evolution’ perspective (drawing from political economy and cultural studies) and the ‘recombination’ perspective (derived from recent work in actor-network theory). The discussion turns to each in turn, extracting the geographical dimensions and implications of each. The article concludes by considering the implications of the discussion for spatial treatments of societytechnology relations and for broader debates about the nature of space and place.

DOI

[14]
Cairncross F.The Death of Distance: How the Communications Revolution is Changing Our Lives. Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2001.

[15]
刘卫东, 甄峰. 信息化对社会经济空间组织的影响研究. 地理学报, 2004, 58(s): 67-76.Recent decades have witnessed extraordinary advances in information and communication technologies (ICTs), which have helped to change social and economic life. Such changes have drawn much attention from scholars in various academic fields, and have initiated fervent debates on the spatial implications of new ICTs. Geographers have been prominent, particularly in contesting the popular view that distance no longer matters and that "the end of geography" is at hand. With these debates, urban and regional development under new ICTs has become a hot issue in geographical studies. This paper, mainly based on literature in English journals, tries to review and summarize the studies on spatial impacts of new ICTs at three levels, i.e. regional restructuring, urban restructuring and firm-level restructuring. Existing literature reveals that new ICTs have played an increasingly important role in the spatial transformations of the economy in the last several decades, but they are "an enabling or facilitating agent". Since there exists a gap between the introduction of new ICTs and changes in the spatial pattern of firms, empirical evidence is still insufficient for drawing firms on new ICT impacts. Overally, the spatial transformations at firm level have not yet been given enough attention by geographers.

DOI

[Liu Weidong, Zhen Feng.Spatial implications of new information and communication technologies. Acta Geographic Sincica, 2004, 58(s): 67-76.]

[16]
Martin R, Sunley P.Path dependency and regional economic evolution. Journal of Economic Geography, 6(4): 395-437.

[17]
Gibson W.Neuromancer. London: Penguin, 2000.

[18]
Wellman B.Physical place and cyberplace: The rise of personalized networking. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 2001, 25(2): 227-252.Computer networks are social networks. Social affordances of computer-supported social networks – broader bandwidth, wireless portability, globalized connectivity, personalization – are fostering the movement from door-to-door and place-to-place communities to person-to-person and role-to-role communities. People connect in social networks rather than in communal groups. In-person and computer-mediated communication are integrated in communities characterized by personalized networking. Les réseaux informatiques sont des réseaux sociaux. Les possibilités sociales qu'offrent les réseaux sociaux informatisés – bande passante plus large, portabilité sans fil, connectivité mondiale, personnalisation – sont en train de favoriser le passage de communautés de porte-à-porte et de lieu-à-lieu vers des communautés d'individu-à-individu et de r00le-à-r00le. Ainsi, les gens se lient davantage dans des réseaux sociaux que dans des collectivités. Les communications directes et via l'informatique sont intégrées dans des communautés caractérisées par un maillage personnalisé.

DOI

[19]
Kellerman A.Where does it happen? The location of the production and consumption of web information. Journal of Urban Technology, 2000, 7(1): 45-61.Research an youth suicide is reviewed along with a brief recounting of family systems theory and the concepts underlying life study research. Together these three orientations serve as a foundation for an account of a suicide of a teenage girl. The story of the young woman reveals the role of narrative thought in autoethnography as well as the nature of storytelling and the witnessing of personal accounts by the researcher The actual account describes the life of a young woman growing up in a volatile home where there is constant fighting and tension. Her reaction to the anger surrounding her and the disapproval she feels culminates in an act of self-destruction. The account concludes with a discussion of the role of family systems, shame, and destructive relationships in the development of the self.

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[20]
Townsend A M.The Internet and the rise of the new network cities, 1969-1999. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 2001, 28(1): 39-58.

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[21]
Zook M A.Old hierarchies or new networks of centrality? The global geography of the Internet content market. American Behavioral Scientist, 2001, 44(10): 1679-1696.

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[22]
Gorman S P.Where are the Web factories: The urban bias of e-business location. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 2010, 93(5): 522-536.The Internet has been considered the great equaliser for business, allowing distant locals to compete with large metropolitan regions. Recent research points to a different geography, where domains and connectivity cluster predominantly in large urban areas. The question remains, are new businesses of the Internet economy doing the same or avoiding metropolitan areas? This paper examines the head and branch locations of the top 40 e usiness integration firms in the USA. The analysis of the distribution of these locations will provide insight to what regions most benefit from the Internet economy. Further, the data should provide a useful comparison to metropolitan trends for domain and connectivity agglomeration.

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[23]
汪明峰, 宁越敏. 互联网与中国信息网络城市的崛起. 地理学报, 2004, 59(3): 446-454.

[Wang Mingfeng, Ning Yuemin.The Internet and the rise of information society cities in China. Acta Geographic Sincica, 2004, 59(3): 446-454.]

[24]
路紫, 李晓楠, 杨丽花, 等. 基于邻域设施的中国大城市网络店铺的区位取向: 以上海、深圳、天津、北京四城市为例. 地理学报, 2011, 66(6): 813-820.

[Lu Zi, Li Xiaonan, Yang Lihua, et al.Location orientation of e-shops in China's major cities based on neighbourhood facilities: Case studies of Shanghai, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Beijing. Acta Geographic Sincica, 2011, 66(6): 813-820.]

[25]
甄峰, 王波, 陈映雪. 基于网络社会空间的中国城市网络特征: 以新浪微博为例. 地理学报, 2012, 67(8): 1031-1043.信息技术影响下的城市区域空间结构变化得到了国内外学者的关注。本文以新浪微博为例,从网络社会空间的角度入手,对中国城市网络发展特征进行了研究。研究表明:微博社会空间视角下的中国城市网络存在着明显的等级关系与层级区分,城市的网络连接度与城市等级表现出了相对一致性。根据城市网络层级与网络联系强度,东部、中部、西部3大区域板块的网络联系差异明显,东部地区内部的联系,以及东部与中部地区和西部地区的联系几乎构成当前网络体系中的全部。城市网络呈现出分层集聚现象,具体表现为"三大四小"发展格局,即京津冀区域、珠三角区域、长三角区域、成渝地区、海西地区、武汉地区、东北地区。高等级城市在整个城市网络中处于绝对支配地位,北京以突出的优势成为全国性的网络联系中心,而上海、广州、深圳则成为全国性的网络联系副中心。

DOI

[Zhen Feng, Wang Bo, Chen Yingxue.China's city network characteristics based on social network space: An empirical analysis on Sina Micro-blog. Acta Geographic Sincica, 2012, 67(8): 1031-1043.]

[26]
王波, 甄峰, 席广亮, 等. 基于微博用户关系的网络信息地理研究: 以新浪微博为例. 地理研究, 2013, 32(2): 380-391.Along with a new development trend of mobile information technology, nowadays people can even communicate with others at anytime and anywhere with any devices. Micro-blog, as one of the most important social network platforms, has experienced vigorous growth and now becomes one of the most popular Internet applications in China. Although micro-blog has become a hotspot of research in areas such as computer and sociology, there have been relatively few studies from the perspective of geography. Compared with the existing researches on cybergeography mainly focused on network infrastructure used to simulate the influence of information, the research based on micro-blog users' relationship will undoubtedly reflect interpersonal communication more directly, thus help to analyze the impact of information on interpersonal social network. Therefore, this paper tries to analyze cybergeography based on micro-blog users' relationship. The study firstly selects 100 micro-blog users in Nanjing and collects these users' followers, followings, friends, and their geospatial information. Then it analyzes the geographical features, forms and the reasons. The results are obtained as follows. (1) The role of distance still acts in the network information space, for a certain distance attenuation phenomenon still exists in network information contact. And the amount of network information contact with these selected users in Jiangsu province occupies the largest part of the country's total, while this figure in Nanjing city also occupies most parts of the total in Jiangsu Province. (2) The network information contact is well consistent with the actual social-economic contact, for not only the strength of network information shows a relative consistence with the social-economic development, but also the pattern of network information contact shows a relative consistence with the overall pattern of social-economic development. (3) The network information space also shows an obvious hierarchy, for not only the strength of network information contact shows different hierarchical levels, but also the network information contact between cities is imbalanced and characterized by asymmetry. Lastly, the study argues that the role of distance and the actual socio-economic contact have joint impacts on the network information space, which has a certain similarity with the function mechanism on the actual geographic space.

DOI

[Wang Bo, Zhen Feng, Xi Guangliang, et al.A study of cybergeography based on micro-bog users' relationship: With a case study of Sina Micro-blog. Geographical Research, 2013, 32(2): 380-391.]

[27]
Zhen F, Wang B, Wei Z.The rise of the Internet city in China: Production and consumption of Internet information. Urban Studies, 2015, 52(13): 2313-2329.

DOI

[28]
Wang Bo, Zhen Feng, Loo B P Y. The role of distance in online social networks: A case study of urban residents in Nanjing, China. Cities, 2018, 79: 37-44.Highly advanced information and communication technologies have reshaped the common ways urban residents interact with each other. With the widespread use of online social networking websites, research interest in the evolving spatial concepts (such as distance) in new digital age has grown exponentially. Data collected by Sina microbloggers from adult residents in Nanjing, China reveal that urban residents not only are more likely to build relationships with local and acquaintance users but also to interact with them more frequently. In other words, spatial and relational distances that play important roles in traditional Chinese social networks also exist in contemporary online social networks. Furthermore, our regression analysis reveals how the roles of spatial and relational distances in the online social networks of urban residents relate to the context of urban transformation in contemporary China. The findings contribute to a more in-depth understanding of the effects of informatisation and urban transformation on the social networks of urban residents.

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[29]
Schwanen T, Dijst M, Kwan M P.ICT and the decoupling of everyday activities, space and time: Introduction. Tijdschrift Voor Economische En Sociale Geografie, 2008, 99(5): 519-527.This article is an introduction to and reflection on the papers about ICTs and everyday life in this issue. It outlines the motivations for the focus on the decoupling of activities, physical space and chronological time and characterises this process and three of its modalities: activity fragmentation; multi-tasking; and personalised networking. The piece concludes by singling out some common elements that run through the set of papers and by identifying four avenues for future research.

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[30]
柴彦威, 赵莹. 时间地理学研究最新进展. 地理科学, 2009, 29(4): 593-600.近10年来,伴随着GIS技术的结合及对虚拟空间行为的研究,时间地理学在经历了一段低迷发展期后,又进入了全新的发展阶段。时间地理学不仅对早期的理论假设、空间表达方式进行了修正,以至于有人提出"新时间地理学"的概念,而且其实践应用领域也得到扩展,在城市交通规划、女性研究、城市空间结构及通讯技术使用的应用范围逐步扩大。

DOI

[Chai Yanwei, Zhao Ying.Recent development in time geography. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2009, 29(4): 593-600.]

[31]
Gregory D.Human agency and human geography. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 1981, 6(1): 1-18.This commentary discusses the prospectus for a humanistic geography provided by the contributors to D. Ley, M. Samuels (eds) Humanistic geography: prospects and problems. The resurgence of a humanist tradition in geography has drawn its impetus in part from la g ographie humaine of Vidal de la Blache, and an examination of the connections between the two conceptions shows a common concern with the efficacy of human agency within an essential 'boundedness' of practical life. A series of parallel developments within 'Marxian humanism' (and in particular the work of E.P. Thompson) is used to suggest that a scientific explication of the relations between agency and structure can be attained through the deployment of a concept of structuration. But this will also require a concept of determination capable of incorporating 'economy' and 'culture' within a single system of concepts, which presages a critical return to the traditional materialism of la g ographie humaine.

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[32]
Hägerstraand T.What about people in regional science?. Papers in Regional Science, 1970, 24(1): 7-24.CateGory Index】： F061.5

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[33]
柴彦威, 沈洁. 基于居民移动—活动行为的城市空间研究. 人文地理, 2006, 21(5): 108-112, 54.在以人为本及后现代思潮的大背景下，人文地理学研究越来越关注个体人的行为以及生活质量问题，基于居民移动．活动行为的城市空间研究正成为人文地理及城市规划学等学科的焦点。论文在对城市活动空间研究及城市交通出行研究中的问题进行梳理的基础上，提出一个基于居民移动．活动行为的城市空间研究新框架，强调行为与空间之间的互动关系，强调RP法和SP法的结合。强调现实行为、现实空间与理想行为、理想空间之间的和谐。

DOI

[Chai Yanwei, Shen Jie. Travel-activity based research frame of human spatial structure. Human Geography, 2006, 21(5): 108-112, 54.]

[34]
柴彦威, 谭一洺, 申悦, 等. 空间—行为互动理论构建的基本思路. 地理研究, 2017, 36(10): 1959-1970.

[Chai Yanwei, Tan Yiming, Shen Yue, et al.Space-behavior interaction theory: Basic thinking of general construction. Geographical Research, 2017, 36(10): 1959-1970.]

[35]
Chai Y, Ta N, Ma J.The socio-spatial dimension of behavior analysis: Frontiers and progress in Chinese behavior geography. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 2016, 26(8): 1243-1260.The interaction between urban space and individual behavior has led to essential social, economic and environmental consequences. Behavioral geography provides a new effective theoretical and methodological framework to investigate behavior patterns in cities. In recent years, behavior approach has become an influential analytical paradigm in Chinese urban geography. This paper provides an overview of behavioral geography research in China, by introducing the theoretical and empirical progress in behavior analysis. It is argued that behavioral approach offers a new perspective to understanding China's urban sociospatial reconstruction and addressing social and environmental issues at micro scale. Although theoretical development still lags behind developed countries, Chinese scholars have made much progress in empirical investigations of classical socio-spatial behavior theories. This paper also provides an overview of new trends in Chinese behavioral geography that has started to apply the behavioral approach to urban social, economic and environmental issues. This paper suggests that social dimensions of behavior should be addressed more comprehensively and rigorously by using interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological frameworks, to better understand the complexity of Chinese cities and research the critical social and environmental issues in cities.

DOI

[36]
甄峰, 王波. “大数据”热潮下人文地理学研究的再思考. 地理研究, 2015, 34(5): 803-811.

[Zhen Feng, Wang Bo.Rethinking human geography in the age of big data. Geographical Research, 2015, 34(5): 803-811.]

[37]
秦萧, 甄峰. 大数据与小数据结合: 信息时代城市研究方法探讨. 地理科学, 2017, 37(3): 321-330.信息技术的快速发展引起了城市研究领域的“大数据”热潮,并带来了传统城市研究方法的变革。但是,其自身存在的诸多缺陷使得学者不得不重新考虑传统小数据的应用角色。但是,传统小数据并没有失去其应用价值,相反,以城市与居民行为活动关系研究为主体的信息时代的城市研究必要充分结合大数据与小数据,并探讨适宜的方法论与方法框架,从而应对日益复杂的城市问题和居民需求。提出“物质空间与活动空间结合”、“相关关系与因果关系结合”、“宏观分析与微观挖掘结合”的3个方法论,并在此基础上构建了“大样本空间发展评价＋空间差异与联系发现＋小样本影响因素探究”、“小样本模型构建＋影响因素发现＋大样本验证及挖掘”、“微观活动分析＋活动空间界定＋影响因素探究”3种方法框架,且分析了这些框架的具体应用,以期为未来的城市研究提供思路和方法借鉴。

[Qin Xiao, Zhen Feng.Combination between big data and small data: New methods of urban studies in the information era. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2017, 37(3): 321-330.]

[38]
Menou M J, Taylor R D.A "grand challenge": Measuring information societies. The Information Society, 2006, 22(5): 261-267.

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[39]
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Measuring the Information Society Report 2015. ITU: Geneva, 2015.

[40]
Loo B P Y, Ngan Y L. Developing mobile telecommunications to narrow digital divide in developing countries? Some lessons from China. Telecommunications Policy, 2012, 36(10): 888-900.

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[41]
Xia J, Lu T J.Bridging the digital divide for rural communities: The case of China. Telecommunications Policy, 2008, 32(9): 686-696.The provision of universal service in China is currently executed under a “Village Access Project” (“VAP”), which is neither explicit nor sustainable in terms of both regulatory incentives and regulatory governance. Four years after the execution of the VAP, this paper reviews possible deficiencies underlying the current regime and explores a sustainable institutional arrangement for Universal Service Obligations (USOs) in China based on the identification of unique institutional constraints. It is argued that the Universal Service Fund (“USF”) is currently unsuitable for China. Instead, a layer-based regulatory approach featuring a “non-subsidy” regime could be a sustainable institutional arrangement when coordination and agency problems are properly addressed in a governance architecture based on a “Joint-Commission” with members from various stakeholder groups.

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[42]
Rae A.Online housing search and the geography of submarkets. Housing Studies, 2015, 30(3): 453-472.The importance of search behaviour has long been recognised in the study of housing markets, but research in this area has frequently been hampered by lack of data. In many nations, the vast majority of initial housing search queries are now conducted online and the data this generates could, in theory, provide us with better insights into how housing market search operates spatially, in addition to generating new knowledge on the geography of local housing submarkets. This paper seeks to explore these propositions by discussing existing conceptions of search before developing a framework for understanding housing search in the digital age. A large, user-generated housing market search data-set is then introduced and analysed with respect to area definition, submarket geography and search pressure locations. The results indicate that this kind of ‘big data’ approach to housing research could generate important new insights for housing market analysts.

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[43]
Smith M R, Marx Leo.Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism. Boston: Mit Press, 1994.

[44]
Aoyama Y.The information society, Japanese style: Corner stores as hubs for e-commerce access. In: Leinbach T R, Brunn S D. Worlds of E-commerce: Economic, Geography and Social Dimensions. Chichester: Wiley, 2001: 109-128.

[45]
Andreev P, Salomon I, Pliskin N.State of teleactivities. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 2010, 18(1): 3-20.The investigation of teleactivities and their impacts on travel behavior received much attention in the transportation literature. Toward further teleactivity research, this paper reviews previous research and analyzes the findings regarding the role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in personal activity and travel patterns. This review of about 100 studies of teleactivities impacts maps reviewed studies according to whether the type of personal activity is mandatory, maintenance, or leisure, the nature of the research is conceptual or empirical and, if empirical, tabulates the ICT impact and the modeling approaches. Telecommuting, enabling mandatory personal activities, has been the most investigated teleactivity (by more than 50% of reviewed articles). Teleshopping and several other teleservices (e.g., telebanking), enabling maintenance personal activities, have received less attention in the literature. Teleleisure, enabling discretionary personal activities, has been the least studied. Of the four major direct impacts of ICT on travel, i.e., substitution, complementarity, modification, and neutrality, substitution has been the most prevalent impact for telecommuting, with complementarity most prevalent impact for teleshopping and teleleisure. More recent empirical have applied more advanced modeling approaches.

DOI

[46]
周素红, 邓丽芳. 基于T-GIS的广州居民日常活动时空关系. 地理学报, 2010, 65(12): 1454-1463.

[Zhou Suhong, Deng Lifang.Spatial-temporal pattern of residents' daily activities based on T-GIS: A case study in Guangzhou, China. Acta Geographic Sincica, 2010, 65(12): 1454-1463.]

[47]
王波, 甄峰, 张浩. 基于签到数据的城市活动时空间动态变化及区划研究. 地理科学, 2017, 35(2): 151-160.Since 1990s, information and communication technologies (ICTs) have experiecned a rapid development over the world. Information and communication devices have almost penetrated into each aspect of people's daily life, and thus become the necessities in the modern world. Under this advancement, the inner relationship among activities, time and location has been theoretically changed because of a serious of the responding tele-activities. However, we still have little knowledge from the empirical studies due to the lack of data. Besides, as a part of urban social space analysis, a dynamic analysis of urban activity space is even scarce, albeit with its importance in understanding the undergoing and future changes in the E-society. Especially in China where is under the socio-economic transition, understanding residents'own need and their real-time activity as well as the influence of ICTs on activity space are quite necessary for the future urban management and planning. With the aid of Location-based service (LBS), Global Positioning System (GPS) and other applications, ICTs helps to record people's real space-time activity, which is one of the main sources of big data in recent research. Among them, given by the soaring popularity of online social network such as Sina micro-blog (the most influential social networking platform in China) and the LBS check-in application, the check-in data undoubtedly provide a real-time big data for the study of urban activity space. Based on this understanding, this article tries to analyze the dynamic changes of urban space-time activity focused on activity, time, and location, using the LBS checking-in data from Sina micro-blog. The results show that: 1) although some research argued that residents'activity schedule would be more flexible by the help of ICTs, in this study we find that the traditional routine still dominate in residents'check-in activities, and thus the rhythm of check-in activities could be used to reflect the corresponding relationship between time and activity; 2) there are differences of residents' check-in activity between on working days, weekends, and holidays, as well as between in downtown and in outskirts, which reveals the difference of daily activities in reality; 3) in a day urban activity space experience dynamic changes, specifically, varied from relative disperse to agglomeration in the morning (6-12 O'clock) and keeps further agglomeration till the afternoon (12-18 O'clock); while encounters dispersion in the evening (18-24 O'clock), though with a relative agglomeration in the night (0-6 O'clock); 4) according to the dynamic changes, activity zones are subdivided into office area, bedroom area, leisure area, nightlife area, and multifunctional area; 5) these activity zones could be generally characterized as hybrid, within a blurred boundary.

[Wang Bo, Zhen Feng, Zhang Hao.The dynamic changes of urban space-time activity and activity zoning based on check-in data in Sina Web. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2017, 35(2): 151-160.]

[48]
申悦, 塔娜, 柴彦威. 基于生活空间与活动空间视角的郊区空间研究进展. 人文地理, 2017, 32(4): 1-6.

[Shen Yue, Ta Na, Chai Yanwei.Research framework of suburban space based on perspective of living space and activity space. Human Geography, 2017, 32(4): 1-6.]

[49]
Mokhtarian P L.A typology of relationships between telecommunications and transportation. Transportation Research Part A: General, 1990, 24(3): 231-242.This paper defines the relationship between telecommunications and transportation, by expanding on linkages already identified in the literature, by identifying additional relationships, and by putting these relationships into a robust conceptual framework. There are conceptual, physical, analytical, and regulatory parallels between telecommunications and transportation. Telecommunications affects the demand for, and supply of, transportation — and vice versa. In the broadest sense, all communication requires transportation in order to occur: transportation either of people, of objects, or of electronic impulses. In other words, communication takes place via one or more of those three modes. It is suggested that “communication breeds communication.” That is, the easier it is to communicate (whether through travel or communications), or the more that one or another form of communication takes place, the more that communication as a whole is stimulated. The relative shares of each of the three modes of communication may vary as one mode partially substitutes for another, but the absolute amounts of communication via each mode are likely to increase. Two empirical studies are summarized, one illustrating that teleconferencing increased travel, the other illustrating that telecommuting decreased travel. Other implications for transportation planning are highlighted.

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[50]
Salomon I.Telecommunications and travel relationships: A review. Transportation Research Part A: General, 1986, 20(3): 223-238.A large body of research on the interactions of telecommunications and transportation has emerged in recent years, an outcome of the pace of development in electronics technology. Three types of interactions are noted: substitution, complementarity and enhancement, by order of their popularity. The paper reviews the knowledge on the relationships between the two systems through the analysis of applications of telecommunications technology for remote work, teleconferencing, teleservices, mobile communications and electronic mail transfer. It points to the importance of assessing future modifications of travel rather than focusing on the promises of substitution. The review also assesses the methods applied in this area and suggests further research, in view of some conceptual and practical issues.

DOI

[51]
Mokhtarian P L.A synthetic approach to estimating the impacts of telecommuting on travel. Urban Studies, 1998, 35(2): 215-241.

DOI

[52]
Henderson D K, Mokhtarian P L.Impacts of center-based telecommuting on travel and emissions: Analysis of the Puget Sound Demonstration Project. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 1996, 1(1): 29-45.Center-based telecommuting has many hypothesized benefits. To determine its value as a transportation demand management strategy, however, its travel-related benefits must be established quantitatively. This research provides the first analysis of the impacts of center-based telecommuting on individual travel behavior and emissions, using travel diary data from the Puget Sound Telecommuting Demonstration Project. An analysis of personal vehicle usage for this small sample of workers showed that the number of vehicle-miles traveled (VMT) was reduced significantly as a result of center-based telecommuting (from 63.25 miles per person-day on non-telecommuting days to 29.31 miles on telecommuting days). The reductions in weekday VMT comprise significant reductions in commute-related VMT with insignificant changes in non-commute-related VMT. The number of personal vehicle trips did not change significantly. In essence, center-based telecommuters behave as conventional commuters in terms of their number of trips, but are more similar to home-based telecommuters in terms of VMT reductions. The significant reduction in VMT translates into a 49% decrease in oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions and a 53% decrease in particulate matter (PM) emissions comparing telecommuting days to non-telecommuting days for the small sample. Because the number of daily trips was not impacted by telecommuting, the levels of emissions associated with the cold start process, total organic gases (TOG) and carbon monoxide (CO), were essentially unaffected. Of course, region-wide impacts will be much smaller when the proportion of telecommuters in the workforce and the frequency of telecommuting is considered.

DOI

[53]
Farag S, Krizek K J, Dijst M.E-shopping and its relationship with in-store shopping: Empirical evidence from the Netherlands and the USA. Transport Reviews, 2006, 26(1): 43-61.Despite considerable examination of the impact of telecommunications on travel, little empirical evidence sheds light on the impact of e‐shopping on travel—a recent and increasingly popular form of telecommunications. This paper analyses determinants of online buying and their relationship with in‐store shopping, using empirical data obtained from Minneapolis, USA, and Utrecht, the Netherlands. Based on chi‐square tests and logistic and ordinary least‐squares regressions, the results indicate that online buying is affected by sociodemographics and spatial characteristics of people, their Internet experience, and their attitudes towards in‐store shopping. US respondents who prefer to see products in person are less likely to buy online. Dutch respondents are more likely to buy online as travel times to shops are shorter. At first sight, this counterintuitive result might be related to an urban, innovative lifestyle that supports e‐shopping. A more detailed analysis of Dutch online buyers reveals that they make more shopping trips than non‐online buyers and have a shorter shopping duration. The results indicate that the relationship between online buying and in‐store shopping is not one of substitution but of complementarity.

DOI

[54]
杜晓娟, 甄峰, Cao Jason.南京市居民购物行为的影响要素和空间效应: 基于四种商品的对比研究. 地理研究, 2017, 36(5): 957-971.信息技术的发展和使用不断改变着居民的购物方式和行为,并对城市交通和城市商业空间布局等产生了一系列影响.采用2015年南京市居民购物行为问卷调查数据,通过联合有序probit模型,探讨南京市居民购物行为影响因素和空间效应,并对四种商品进行对比研究.研究表明:①家庭生命周期、城市建成环境、居民购物态度、机动车保有状况和社会经济人口因素均对居民购物行为有显著影响,且存在产品类型差异;②不同类型人群对城市交通出行和商业布局的影响不同,且特征人群分布存在空间分异;③居民对不同产品类型购物的空间偏好存在差异,且这种偏好受居民主观决策和客观环境共同影响.基于以上发现,对城市交通和商业布局提出相关建议.

DOI

[Du Xiaojuan, Zhen Feng, Cao Jason.Influential factors and spatial effects of individuals' shopping behavior in Nanjing: A comparative study on four types of goods. Geographical Research, 2017, 36(5): 957-971.]

[55]
汪明峰, 卢珊, 邱娟. 网上购物对城市零售业空间的影响: 以书店为例. 经济地理, 2010, 30(11): 1835-1840, 1896.

[Wang Mingfeng, Lu Shan, Qiu Juan.The impact of online shopping on urban retail space: A case study of book store. Economic Geography, 2010, 30(11): 1835-1840, 1896.]

[56]
Kwan M P.Time, information technologies, and the geographies of everyday life. Urban Geography, 2002, 23(5): 471-482.The hedonic approach is used to analyze selling prices for housing units in greater Tucson, Arizona, during 1998. Using over 6,400 Multiple Listing Service transactions, ordinary least-squares regression is used to estimate implicit prices for the amount of living space, age of the unit, and other housing attributes in this rapidly growing southwestern city. Price premiums are estimated for nine different real estate districts, which realtors believe are different housing submarkets. Regression estimates are also given for the difference between original list price and selling price, thereby indicating how sellers and buyers differentially evaluated housing attributes. Nearly 3,700 transactions (from an overlapping data set) were geocoded, and these cases are examined in somewhat more detail. Spatial heterogeneity in selling prices is addressed but spatial dependency is not. The statistics of the hedonic price functions compare favorably with those for other U.S. cities.

DOI

[57]
Schwanen T, Kwan M P.The Internet, mobile phone and space-time constraints. Geoforum, 2008, 39(3): 1362-1377.While the implications of information and communication technologies (ICTs) for daily travel and activities have been studied extensively, there is only scant attention paid to the relations between ICTs and space-time constraints. This study therefore explores the extent to which the Internet and mobile phone increase the spatial and temporal flexibility of everyday activities through a review of the literature and empirical research with data from Columbus (Ohio, USA) and Utrecht (The Netherlands). The analysis suggests that the implications of the Internet and mobile phone are complex and dependent on the type of activity, persons involved, technologies and socio-physical context in which they are embedded. Various regularities can, however, be detected. For the study participants, the Internet and mobile phone relax temporal constraints to a stronger degree than they enhance spatial flexibility. There are also space-time constraints that seem to persist or have come about because of ICT adoption. Finally, it appears that the Internet and mobile phone at best consolidate differences between men and women in the space-time constraints associated with everyday activities.

DOI

[58]
Alexander B, Ettema D, Dijst M.Fragmentation of work activity as a multi-dimensional construct and its association with ICT, employment and sociodemographic characteristics. Journal of Transport Geography, 2010, 18(1): 55-64.A potential effect of ICTs is that they alleviate the traditional space-time constraints of paidwork activities and allow for the decomposition of work into multiple segments of subtasks, which can be performed at different times and/or locations. Such separation of activities into discrete pieces is commonly termed the fragmentation of activity. Regrettably, only limited empirical evidence is available on the fragmentation of work activity and the factors that contribute to it. The goal of this paper is to extend the previous work in the activity fragmentation arena in three ways: (i) to operationalize measures of spatial fragmentation and reformulate some of the temporal fragmentation measures for the specific purpose of investigating the fragmentation of the work activity; (ii) to analyse fragmentation not only in terms of the individual indicators, but also as a multi-dimensional construct including all dimensions of spatial and temporal fragmentation collectively; (iii) to test a detailed set of ICT-related, workrelated, and sociodemographic variables to identify the factors that are crucial in the occurrence of the fragmentation of the work activity. The study shows that there is heterogeneity in the fragmentation of work. Three internally homogenous patterns of fragmentation, which diverge in the degree of fragmentation, are identified: (1) a less temporally and spatially fragmented work pattern; (2) a less spatially and more temporally fragmented work pattern; (3) a more spatially and temporally fragmented work pattern. The multiple discriminant analysis suggests that ICT variables and work-related variables as well as personal-household attributes are associated with the fragmentation of work. However, the degree of association differs considerably among representative patterns of fragmentation.

DOI

[59]
Lenz B, Nobis C.The changing allocation of activities in space and time by the use of ICT: "Fragmentation" as a new concept and empirical results. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 2007, 41(2): 190-204.Theoretical and empirical research about the impact of information and communication technologies (ICT) on transport relies on the hypothesis that ICT use leads to a reorganization of activities in time and space thus having as a consequence impacts on travel behavior. The breaking up of activities into discrete pieces by the use of ICT is the starting point of the fragmentation concept that underlies the present article. The concept argues that transport demand increases by the fragmentation of activities and explores the relevant mechanisms for this process. In all, however, the concept is still rather vague. Therefore, the authors discuss some elements of the concept on a theoretical level, in particular the question why individuals “fragment” their activities. In the empirical section they use a data set about activities, ICT use and travel behavior in Germany to find out how far an activity like work, which is particularly apt for fragmentation, shows signs of temporal and spatial disintegration. With the help of a cluster analysis they identify groups with different “fragmentation behavior” and investigate if a statistically significant relation exists between fragmentation behavior and ICT use. Accordingly, the focus of the article lies on the impact of ICT use on the performance of activities by different behavioral groups. The link to travel behavior is made by examining mode choices for different purposes and travel related attitudes.

DOI

[60]
Xi G, Zhen F, Gilles P, et al.Spatio-temporal fragmentation of leisure activities in information era: Empirical evidence from Nanjing, China. Chinese Geographical Science, 2017, 27(1): 137-150.

DOI

[61]
Circella G, Mokhtarian P L, Poff L K.A conceptual typology of multitasking behavior and polychronicity preferences. Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research, 2012, 9(1): 59-107.Multitasking is a ubiquitous phenomenon in modern life. However, many gaps in the understanding of the rationale behind its adoption and its implications still remain, and activity combinations that are considered to be multitasking in the literature offer a varied range of manifestations. This paper discusses a conceptual framework for the systematic treatment and analysis of multitasking behavior, and of the corresponding degree of preference for doing multiple activities simultaneously, or polychronicity. A typology of multitasking is developed along the dimensions of “share of time” and “share of attention” for the execution of multiple tasks. the authors discuss the importance of the time scale or granularity used for measuring multitasking, the active vs. passive role of activities, and some approaches to measuring multitasking and polychronicity in empirical studies. The paper provides an illustrative library of examples of the great diversity of multitasking situations in real life. Polychronicity is conceptualized as a vector-valued construct, which is time- and context-dependent, rather than a mono-valued orientation of individuals in everyday life.`

DOI

[62]
Kenyon S, Lyons G.Introducing multitasking to the study of travel and ICT: Examining its extent and assessing its potential importance. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 2007, 41(2): 161-175.

DOI

[63]
甄峰. 信息时代新空间形态研究. 地理科学进展, 2004, 23(3): 16-26.lt;p>空间是地理学研究的主题。随着信息技术在人与社会经济系统中更广泛的应用，传统的地理空间正在发生快速的转型。在了解西方关于新空间形态解释的基础上，论文重点对当前信息技术影响下的新空间形态进行了探索性研究。论文首先提出了实空间、虚空间及灰空间的三元空间假设，然后分析了虚空间、灰空间各自的内涵、构成和类型。最后，论文对三元空间之间的异同进行了比较，并认为三元空间并存与共生将是一个持续的现象。</p>

DOI

[Zhen Feng.Research on new spatial forms in information era. Progress in Geography, 2004, 23(3): 16-26.]

[64]
Pred A.Place as historically contingent process: Structuration and the time-geography of becoming places. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1984, 74(2): 279-297.Abstract. This paper presents the theoretical foundation for a different type of place-centered or regional geography. The framework rests upon an integration of time-geography and the emerging theory of structuration. It also builds upon a conceptualization of place as a constantly becoming human product as well as a set of features visible upon the landscape. Place is seen as a process whereby the reproduction of social and cultural forms, the formation of biographies, and the transformation of nature ceaselessly become one another at the same time that time-space specific activities and power relations continuously become one another. It is further contended that the ways in which these phenomena are interwoven in the becoming of place or region are not subject to universal laws but vary with historical circumstances. Three empirical foci that suggest themselves from the framework are briefly discussed.

DOI

[65]
Harris C D, Ullman E L.The nature of cities. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1945, 242(1): 7-17.

DOI

[66]
Corbusier L. The Athens Charter.New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973.

[67]
Wang B, Zhen F, Wei Z, et al.A theoretical framework and methodology for urban activity spatial structure in e-society: Empirical evidence for Nanjing city, China. Chinese Geographical Science, 2015, 25(6): 672-683.The existing researches on the influence of information and communication technology(ICT) are mainly focused on human activity, whilst with few efforts on urban space. In the e-society, the widespread adoption of ICT devices not only affects almost every aspect of people′s daily life and thereby reshapes the spatial development of regions and cities, but also generates a large amount of real-time activity data with location information. These georeferenced data, however, have relatively recently attracted attention from geographers. Adapted from Lynch′s framework based on people′s perceptions, this paper proposes a framework of urban spatial structure based on people′s actual activity, including five elements, namely activity path, activity node, central activity zone(CAZ), activity district, and activity edge. In the empirical study, by using one week′s check-in tweets(from February 25 to March 3 in 2013) collected in Nanjing City, the five elements are recognized and analyzed. Through the comparison between our results and urban spatial structure based on population(and land use), we argue that ICT uses: 1) lead to polarize, rather than to smooth, the urban structural hierarchy, due to the dual role of distance; 2) enable a partial decoupling of activity and activity space node, which challenges our conventional understanding of the role of home and the utility of travel; 3) blur the boundaries of activity districts and hence may play a positive role in enriching districts′ functions, which should not be overlooked in the current urban transformation in China.

DOI

[68]
Blunt A.Cultural geography: Cultural geographies of home. Progress in Human Geography, 2005, 29(4): 505-515.

DOI

[69]
Hjorthol R, Gripsrud M.Home as a communication hub: The domestic use of ICT. Journal of Transport Geography, 2009, 17(2): 115-123.With the rapidly increasing ease of access to the Internet in people’s homes, more and more of our everyday activities are being carried out online. While the home has become what might be called a communication hub, open to question is the impact this virtual mobility is having on our physical mobility. The questions we address in this article concern the extent to which network communication is carried out in our homes and this in relation to (1) activities that demand transport, (2) those of us who utilize these options, and (3) the virtual and physical mobility/communication patterns. Data from a nationwide Norwegian sample are utilized in investigating these questions. The dataset comprises 2700 respondents with access to the Internet at home and who answered questions about daily travel and home-based use of information and communication technology (ICT) for purposes such as information-seeking, shopping, paid work, net-banking, chatting and playing games. The analysis indicates that while use of the Internet for many of these activities is common, it varies between groups. We discuss whether virtual activities have physical equivalents – physical twins - or whether these come in addition to previous equivalent activities. It is shown that the relation between virtual and physical mobility varies depending on type of activity and social group, but, overall, that is not very strong. One possible explanation is that many new ICT services and applications do not have as clear-cut functional equivalents – or physical twins – as many of the earlier ICT technologies had, and, if true, will make it increasingly difficult to track down the interplay between transport and communication.

DOI

[70]
Loo B P Y, Wang B. Factors associated with home-based e-working and e-shopping in Nanjing, China. Transportation, 2018, 45(2): 365-384.The widespread adoption of information and communication technology has facilitated frequent e-activities in people’s daily life. From the perspective of individual’s time use on e-working and e-shopping at home, this paper aims to enhance our understanding of the function of home beyond a living space for family life. Using a household survey of 608 full-time paid employees who conducted e-activities at home in Nanjing, China, we investigated the characteristics and patterns of home-based e-working and e-shopping. Only 7.9% of the respondents neither e-shopped nor e-worked at home. We find that the socio-demographic context, Internet use habits, attitudes towards e-working/e-shopping, and geographical accessibility have influenced the patterns of home-based e-working and e-shopping. The results indicate that the rich e-activities taking place at home have changed the time use at home and reinforced the function of home as a multifunctional hub. 08 2017 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

DOI

[71]
Taylor P J.World City Network: A Global Urban Analysis. Hove: Psychology Press, 2004.

[72]
Lyons G, Urry J.Travel time use in the information age. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 2005, 39(2): 257-276.This paper, focused primarily on UK data and debates, considers the potential significance of travel time use within past, present and future patterns of mobility. In transport scheme appraisal, savings in travel time typically represent a substantial proportion of the benefits of a scheme—benefits used to justify its often enormous financial costs. Such benefits are founded on the assumption that travel time is unproductive, wasted time in-between ‘real’ activities and which should be minimised. Travel demand analysis treats travel time and activity time as separate, albeit acknowledging an interdependency. The paper challenges these approaches by exploring how travel time can be, and is, being used ‘productively’ as activity time, and what enhancements to time use might be emerging in the ‘information age’. Such undermining of the division between activities and travelling, and between activity time and travel time, may have major implications for future levels of mobility, for the modal distribution of travel, for the validity of current transport appraisal methodology and for the analysis of travelling within the information age. These issues are considered.

DOI

[73]
Jain J, Lyons G.The gift of travel time. Journal of Transport Geography, 2008, 16(2): 81-89.The interpretation of travel time in economic terms has played a fundamental part in shaping our transport systems. The time consumed in order to travel to a destination has been seen as the price paid for fulfilling the purpose of reaching that destination. By interpreting travel time as a disutility or burden, transport policy has been driven by the goal of quicker journeys. Drawing upon multidisciplinary literature and new qualitative research, this paper articulates an alternative perspective. It suggests that travel time, at least for the individual, can (sometimes) be perceived and experienced as a gift rather than a burden. This is examined in the context of (co-present) participation in social networks and in terms of two forms of travel time experience from which positive utility can be derived: transition time and time out both facilitated or supported by a third notion, namely equipped time.

DOI

[74]
Limtanakool N, Dijst M, Schwanen T.A theoretical framework and methodology for characterising national urban systems on the basis of flows of people: Empirical evidence for France and Germany. Urban Studies, 2007, 44(11): 2123-2145.

DOI

[75]
Lyons G, Jain J, Weir I.Changing times: A decade of empirical insight into the experience of rail passengers in Great Britain. Journal of Transport Geography, 2016, 57: 94-104.61Growing presence of ICTs in rail travel time use with declining presence of paper.61Better rail journey time experience due to mobile technologies.61Increasingly worthwhile use of time tempered by crowding on trains.61ICTs place more control of travel experience in the hands of rail passengers.61Important for rail industry to further support positive use of travel time.

DOI

[76]
Tang J, Zhen F, Cao J, et al.How do passengers use travel time? A case study of Shanghai-Nanjing high speed rail. Transportation, 2018, 45(2): 451-447.Abstract Traditional travel behavior theory regards travel time as a waste. Recent studies suggest that it carries a positive utility, among other reasons for the benefit of the activities conducted while traveling. However, most studies of travel time use have focused on conventional trains in developed countries. Few have systematically examined the permeation of information and communication technology (ICT) into travel time use and the correlates of activity participation in developing countries, particularly on high speed rail (HSR). Using a survey conducted on the Shanghai anjing corridor (N = 901), this study examines how HSR passengers use their travel time and explores the correlates of the different types of activities of business and non-business travelers, respectively, through multivariate probit models. We found that 96% of the respondents use ICT during their HSR journey and that most passengers spend some of their travel time on work-related activities. Moreover, items carried and advance planning as well as work-related travel attributes contribute significantly to activity participation. However, the factors affecting time use of business and non-business travelers differ. HSR service design should facilitate passenger engagement in various activities and improvement of their travel experience. A stable internet connection, adequate power sockets, and a noise-free environment will promote both work and leisure activities on the HSR.

DOI

[77]
Guo Z, Derian A, Zhao J.Smart devices and travel time use by bus passengers in Vancouver, Canada. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 2015, 9(5): 335-347.This research investigates the usage of smart devices and time at bus stops and on buses in Vancouver, Canada. Using passive observations and self-reported surveys mainly from college students, the majority of passengers were found to use their travel time actively. Most of the observed active activities are associated with the usage of smart devices. However, while the possession of smart devices is prevalent, less than one-third of passengers used them during travel. A variety of environmental and trip factors, personal attributes, and past experiences influence the usage of smart devices. Research also found that smart devices encourage multitasking.

DOI

[78]
Ettema D, Friman M, Gärling T, et al.How in-vehicle activities affect work commuters' satisfaction with public transport. Journal of Transport Geography, 2012, 24, 215-222.Research has recently questioned the commonly held opinion that travel time is valued as negative, arguing that engagement in activities during travel may make these trips more enjoyable or productive. Satisfaction with travel has to date been assessed using utility-based models or measures of productivity of the trip. The present study is the first to assess the influence of activities performed during travel on public transport users subjective well-being. To this end, a survey was conducted in Sweden in 2010 in which activities during the work commute by public transport were recorded and subjective well-being during travel was measured retrospectively using the Satisfaction with Travel Scale (STS). Results show that talking to other passengers has the strongest positive effect on STS, whereas activities related to entertainment and relaxation lead to lower STS, possibly since engaging in these activities reflect unsuccessful attempts to abate boredom. In addition, it is found that activities during travel may have a more positive effect on the commute back home, suggesting that the mindset related to the destination influences travel satisfaction.

DOI

[79]
Wang B, Loo B P Y. Travel time use and its impact on high-speed-railway passengers' travel satisfaction in the e-society.International Journal of Sustainable Transportation. DOI: 10.1080/15568318.2018.1459968.

[80]
吴康, 方创琳, 赵渺希, 等. 京津城际高速铁路影响下的跨城流动空间特征. 地理学报, 2013, 68(2): 159-174.

[Wu Kang, Fang Chuanglin, Zhao Miaoxi, et al.The intercity space of flow influenced by high-speed rail: A case study for the rail transit passenger behavior between Beijing and Tianjin. Acta Geographic Sincica, 2013, 68(2): 159-174.]

[81]
Adams P C.Network topologies and virtual place. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1998, 88(1): 88-106.The use of terms such as “cyberspace,”“electronic frontier,” and “information superhighway” implies a project for geographers: the attempt to incorporate such innovative views of place within an ontological framework sensitive to geographical concerns. Combinatorial theory and structuration theory provide a basis for this incorporation. Just as places are dialectically related to social processes, so too are communication media. Similar factors related to the patterning of communication flows pertain in both cases. In particular, geographers can identify similar patterns of nodes (communicators) and links (communication paths) in places and in communication media. These patterns, or topologies, provide a set of opportunities and constraints for social interaction. When topologies in computer networks replicate the topologies in familiar places, certain elements of social structuration are shared, as well. This sharing, in turn, lends validity to claims about “virtual place” that can be quantitatively described, through combinatorial methods, to indicate the level of specialization in the topological form that has been replicated, and hence the significance of the replication. In light of such similarities, the political and social implications of computer networking are explored.

DOI

[82]
Kinsley S.The matter of 'virtual' geographies. Progress in Human Geography, 2014, 38(3): 364-384.

DOI

[83]
Cao X J, Mokhtarian P L, Handy S L.Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behaviour: A focus on empirical findings. Transport Reviews, 2009, 29(3): 359-395.Numerous studies have found that suburban residents drive more and walk less than residents in traditional neighborhoods. What is less well understood is the extent to which the observed patterns of travel behavior can be attributed to the residential built environment itself, as opposed to the prior self-selection of residents into a built environment that is consistent with their predispositions toward certain travel modes and land use configurations. To date, most studies addressing this attitudinal self-selection issue fall into seven categories: direct questioning, statistical control, instrumental variables models, sample selection models, joint discrete choice models, structural equations models, and longitudinal designs. This paper reviews and evaluates these alternative approaches with respect to this particular application (a companion paper focuses on the empirical findings of 28 studies using these approaches). We identify some advantages and disadvantages of each approach, and note the difficulties in actually quantifying the absolute and/or relative extent of the true influence of the built environment on travel behavior. Although time and resource limitations are recognized, we recommend usage of longitudinal structural equations modeling with control groups, a design which is strong with respect to all causality requisites.

DOI

[84]
Cao X J.How does neighborhood design affect life satisfaction? Evidence from twin cities. Travel Behaviour and Society, 2016, 5: 68-76.Planning for quality of life is generally conceptual because empirical studies are limited. Most of them focus on environmental amenities and have yet to consider other dimensions of neighborhood design. More importantly, previous studies are not based on theoretical frameworks and hence have a limited capacity to reveal the mechanisms underlying neighborhood design and life satisfaction. This study adapts Campbell model to connect neighborhood characteristics and life satisfaction through perceptions and residential satisfaction. It applies structural equations models to the data from the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. Land use mix simultaneously imposes positive and negative impacts on life satisfaction although its total effect is insignificant. Both high density and poor street connectivity are detrimental to life satisfaction, but street connectivity is much more influential than density. To enhance life satisfaction, planners should limit poor-connectivity neighborhoods and implement strategies to promote positive responses of land use mix.

DOI

[85]
Wang B, Loo B P Y. The hierarchy of cities in Internet news media and Internet search: Some insights from China.Cities. doi: 10.1016/j.cities.2018.07.013.

[86]
Anderson C.Makers: The New Industrial Revolution. New York: Random House, 2012.If a country wants to remain economically vibrant, it needs to manufacture things. In recent years, however, many nations have become obsessed with making money out of selling services, leaving the real business of manufacturing to others.Makers is about how all that is being reversed. Over the past ten years, the internet has democratised publishing, broadcasting and communications, leading to a massive increase in the range of participation in everything digital - the world of bits. Now the same is happening to manufacturing - the world of things.Chris Anderson, bestselling author of The Long Tail, explains how this is happening: how such technologies as 3D printing and electronics assembly are becoming available to everybody, and how people are building successful businesses as a result. Whereas once every aspiring entrepreneur needed the support of a major manufacturer, now anybody with a smart idea and a little expertise can make their ideas a reality. Just as Google, Facebook and others have created highly successful companies in the virtual world, so these new inventors and manufacturers are assuming positions of ever greater importance in the real world.The next industrial revolution is on its way.

DOI

[87]
Wang B, Loo B P Y. Hubs of Internet entrepreneurs: The emergence of coworking offices in Shanghai, China. Journal of Urban Technology, 2017, 24(3): 67-84.08 2017 The Society of Urban Technology. Recently, the Chinese government has announced the “Internet plus” national strategy to encourage the development of Internet industries, particularly “innovations at the grassroots level.” Supportive government policies at the national and local level, and strong market demand have led to the rise of “Internet plus” entrepreneurs. Many of them are not setting up their own offices but are using shared or co-working offices. This study examines the geographical factors, reasons, and processes behind the emergence of co-working offices for these Internet start-up firms through on-site observations and in-depth interviews with the management and users at major co-working offices in Shanghai, China.

DOI

[88]
Goodchild M F, Janelle D G.Toward critical spatial thinking in the social sciences and humanities. Geojournal, 2010, 75(1): 3-13.The integration of geographically referenced information into the conceptual frameworks and applied uses of the social sciences and humanities has been an ongoing process over the past few centuries. It has gained momentum in recent decades with advances in technologies for computation and visualization and with the arrival of new data sources. This article begins with an overview of this transition, and argues that the spatial integration of information resources and the cross-disciplinary sharing of analysis and representation methodologies are important forces for the integration of scientific and artistic expression, and that they draw on core concepts in spatial (and spatio-temporal) thinking. We do not suggest that this is akin to prior concepts of unified knowledge systems, but we do maintain that the boundaries to knowledge transfer are disintegrating and that our abilities in problem solving for purposes of artistic expression and scientific development are enhanced through spatial perspectives. Moreover, approaches to education at all levels must recognize the need to impart proficiency in the critical and efficient application of these fundamental spatial concepts, if students and researchers are to make use of expanding access to a broadening range of spatialized information and data processing technologies.

DOI PMID

[89]
Haddad H, Lyons G, Cgatterjee K.An examination of determinants influencing the desire for and frequency of part-day and whole-day homeworking. Journal of Transport Geography, 2009, 17(2): 124-133.This paper presents findings and analysis based upon the third wave of a national longitudinal survey in the UK which is examining part-day homeworking and comparing it with whole-day homeworking. Survey results confirm earlier findings that there is a higher incidence, amongst full-time paid employees, of part-day homeworking than whole-day homeworking. The paper then separately examines determinants of the desire to part-day homework and whole-day homework and determinants of the reported frequency of part-day homeworking and whole-day homeworking. The determinants considered are socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and belief statements relating to homeworking. Four statements are found to be relevant to desire to part-day and to whole-day homework: avoiding interruptions at work; avoiding wasted time in traffic; other household members appreciating the employee homeworking; and working longer hours. A similar comparison concerning actual frequency of homeworking finds that employer support is relevant for both homeworking practices, with part-day homeworking being associated with avoiding interruptions at work and whole-day homeworking frequency also being associated with commute struggle. For both forms of working practice, the belief statements are better able to explain desire to homework (more) than to explain frequency of homeworking. This is perhaps not surprising given the variability of work patterns at the level of the individual that can occur from week-to-week. The better performance of desire models for whole-day homeworking compared to those for part-day homeworking suggest that other factors are at play that remain to be identified in future examination of part-day homeworking.

DOI

[90]
Graham M, Shelton T.Geography and the future of big data, big data and the future of geography. Dialogues in Human Geography, 2013, 3(3): 255-261.

DOI

[91]
秦萧, 甄峰, 熊丽芳, 等. 大数据时代城市实空间行为研究方法. 地理科学进展, 2013, 32(9): 1352-1361.信息技术的快速发展带来了“大数据”时代的到来,改变了城市的空间组织和居民行为,并使得城市时空间行为研究方法面临变革。本文在总结传统城市时空间行为研究方法存在问题的基础上,对影响其变革的数据获取与处理技术进行梳理,重点从居民时空行为、城市空间及城市等级体系3个方面综述了国内外应用大数据进行城市时空间行为研究的最新进展,构建了基于大数据应用的城市时空间行为研究方法框架。本文认为,大数据时代城市时空间行为研究方法的变革主要取决于对反映居民时空行为的网络或移动信息设备数据的挖掘、处理及应用,但是还需要进一步推动相关学科间的交叉与融合,加强社交网站等网络数据在居民时空行为和城市空间研究中的应用,并指导城市规划编制与管理方法的创新。

DOI

[Qin Xiao, Zhen Feng, Xiong Lifang, et al.Methods in urban temporal and spatial behavior research in the big data era. Progress in Geography, 2013, 32(9): 1352-1361.]

[92]
柴彦威, 龙瀛, 申悦. 大数据在中国智慧城市规划中的应用探索. 国际城市规划, 2014, 29(6): 9-11.1大数据时代的智慧城市规划 随着我国城镇化的加速与深化,以消耗资源环境为代价、以空间机械扩张为核心的城市发展模式已难以为继,传统的城镇发展与城市规划模式亟待转型与革新,而近年来引起各领域高度关注的大数据与智慧城市则为这种革新提供了机遇与挑战。

[Chai Yanwei, Long Ying, Shen Yue.Big data application in China's smart city planning. Urban Planning International, 2014, 29(6): 9-11.]

[93]
钟炜菁, 王德, 谢栋灿, 等. 上海市人口分布与空间活动的动态特征研究: 基于手机信令数据的探索. 地理研究, 2017, 36(5): 972-984.

[Zhong Weijing, Wang De, Xie Dongcan, et al.Dynamic characteristics of Shanghai's population distribution using cell phone signaling data. Geographical Research, 2017, 36(5): 972-984.]

[94]
王波, 甄峰, 魏宗财. 南京市区活动空间总体特征研究: 基于大数据的实证分析. 人文地理, 2014, 29(3): 14-21, 55.

[Wang Bo, Zhen Feng, Wei Zongcai.The research on characteristics of urban activity space in Nanjing: An empirical analysis based on big data. Human Geography, 2014, 29(3): 14-21, 55.]

[95]
Wang Bo, Zhen Feng, Qin Xiao, et al.Gis-based social spatial behavior studies: A case study in Nanjing University utilizing mobile data. In: Huang B. Comprehensive Geographic Information Systems. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2018: 320-329.

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