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GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH >

2016 , Vol. 35 >Issue 2: 256 - 270

DOI: https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201602005

Articles

Comparative analysis on the leisure values of urban ecological recreation spaces: A case study of Changshu city

  • SUN Kun 1, 2 ,
  • ZHONG Linsheng , 2 ,
  • ZHANG Aiping 2 ,
  • ZHANG Guoping 1
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  • 1. Economics and Management College, Changshu Institute of Technology, Suzhou 215500, Jiangsu, China
  • 2. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China

Received date: 2015-07-08

  Request revised date: 2015-11-16

  Online published: 2016-02-20

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《地理研究》编辑部
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Abstract

The planning and construction of ecological recreation spaces are important contents of urban planning and construction, and the enhancement of leisure value is an important task in the construction of urban ecological recreation spaces. By selecting comparable observation corridors in the woodland, grassland, water area with highlighted urban ecological recreation service function in Changshu city, and dynamically observing recreationists' spontaneous recreation behaviors, this study set up the method for evaluating the leisure value of urban ecological recreation space, and the evaluation indexes included leisure tendency to certain eco-space, leisure viscidity, and the adaptability of certain eco-space to recreationists. Using these evaluation indexes, the dynamic comparative analysis of the leisure values of woodland, grassland and water area was carried out. The results showed that: (1) Among the three types of ecological recreation spaces with similar acreages, water area had the highest leisure value in the whole year, followed by grassland and woodland. Woodland had the most advantages in forming better recreational environment when the external macro-conditions were not good for recreation in daylight, followed by water area and grassland. (2) In the whole year, the leisure value distributions of different ecological recreation spaces were different and mutually complementary each other. The factors like visual field, light, activity space and others weakened the leisure value of woodland in the early morning and at nightfall, but grassland and water area had certain comparative advantages in terms of these factors, and formed complementation with woodland. (3) The leisure value of woodland to the elder was most remarkable, while middle-aged people preferred water-area leisure, and the youth and children preferred grassland leisure. What's more, different aged people tended to conduct their most ecological leisure activities in their respective favorite time, which influenced the temporal distribution of the leisure value of each ecological recreation space. (4) In the construction of urban ecological recreation spaces, the mutual complementarity of different ecological recreation spaces in the aspects of recreation servicing time and serving objects should be attached more attention; the configuration scheme of different ecological recreation spaces should be made according to the areal distribution of different aged people in city; the leisure facilities should be scientifically allocated according to the differences in the leisure value of each ecological recreation space; the dynamic management measures should be implemented according to the variation of the leisure value of eco-space; and the leisure value of certain ecological recreation space should be enhanced according to the relevant influencing factors, and so on.

Key words： urban area; ecological recreation space; leisure value; Changshu city

Cite this article

SUN Kun , ZHONG Linsheng , ZHANG Aiping , ZHANG Guoping . Comparative analysis on the leisure values of urban ecological recreation spaces: A case study of Changshu city[J]. GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH, 2016 , 35(2) : 256 -270 . DOI: 10.11821/dlyj201602005

1 引言

国家的新型城镇化战略要求以人为本。至2013年末,中国城镇常住人口达7.31亿,城市居民拥有的自然生态空间较少[1],具有亲近自然的强烈游憩需求[2],建设城市生态游憩空间对于塑造高质量城市生活环境及城市居民健康有重要意义[3,4]。城市生态游憩空间是城市空间结构的重要组成部分[5],为满足市民生态游憩需求,在规划建设城市生态游憩空间时应尽可能体现和提升其休闲游憩价值;但城市生态游憩空间休闲规划、设计及管理水平仍有待提升[6]。对城市生态游憩空间休闲价值的评价研究可为其休闲价值提升提供依据,可对相关规划、设计及管理决策提供必要信息[7]。
业内学者对生态空间休闲价值进行了广泛的研究[8-10],为城市生态游憩空间休闲价值评价提供了基本思路和方法。相关研究对大到全球生态系统,小到具体林地、草地、水域等的休闲价值均进行了相关分析[11-17],并日益注重生态空间休闲价值的动态研究[18-20],但专门针对城市生态游憩空间休闲价值的研究成果仍较少。生态空间休闲价值评价的常用方法有旅行费用法、条件价值法、参数法、旅游收入法、评估模型法、选择实验法等[21-29],各种方法均有优缺点[15]。相关研究显示,城市生态游憩空间的休闲价值与其自身的可接触性及城市人口密度等明显正相关,但与其自身美学价值并不一致[30,31],这说明单从城市生态游憩空间自身对其休闲价值进行评价并不能反映实际情况,而从休闲游憩市场角度对其休闲价值进行评价则更为合理。因此,本文从市场主体的休闲游憩需要出发,基于游憩者休闲行为[32]、休闲偏好[33]等对城市生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行分析判断。根据相关研究,生态游憩空间主要有农田、林地、草地、山岳、水域、冰雪地、沙漠等[34],而在城市,林地、草地、水域是最常见的生态游憩空间类型。对城市各类生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行动态化比较研究,可对城市生态文明建设中各类生态空间的有效配置提供一定依据,提高城市生态建设质量和效益。本文选择常熟市的特定区域,对城市林地、草地、水域这几种主要生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行动态对比研究,以期为城市生态游憩空间规划、建设及管理提供理论借鉴。

2 研究区概况与研究方法

2.1 研究区概况

研究区位于常熟市,该市位于江苏省东南部,是中国首批休闲城市综合标准试点市,地处中纬度亚热带季风气候区,四季分明,年均气温15.4 ℃。林地、草地、水域为常熟市民的主要生态游憩空间。在常熟市全国首批“城市中央休闲区”内选择具有游憩服务功能的林地、草地、水域作为研究对象,其位置及分布如图1所示。研究区全年大部分日子的最大风力为3~4级,四季皆适宜休闲游憩,但最佳适游时段不同。冬季日极值平均气温最低在0 ℃以上,正午及其前后为最佳游憩时段;夏季日平均气温最高为34 ℃左右,约一半时间日平均气温在30 ℃以上,傍晚及其前后为最佳游憩时段;春秋季节大部分时间的气温约处于10 ℃~25 ℃之间,上午及下午的中间时段较适宜游憩。研究对象均为城市开放型生态游憩空间,是全年城市居民经常性游憩场所,其休闲游憩服务特征能反映出相同气候区林地、草地、水域全年及每天不同时间的休闲价值变化情况,以及全年各类生态游憩空间休闲价值的差异。
Fig. 1 The location and overview of the study area

图1 研究地点位置及概况

2.2 研究方法

2.2.1 观测廊道的选择 在研究区的林地、草地、水域这三类生态游憩空间中各选择一条游道作为对比性观测各类生态游憩空间休闲价值的廊道。为了使观测到的数据可比,基于如下条件选择3条观测廊道：① 3条廊道的宽度及长度分别相同,宽2 m,长80 m;② 3条游憩廊道沿线均无休憩座椅;③ 3条廊道均专为游客分别在林地、草地、水域区的休闲游憩而设,而非通过性游道;④ 3条廊道的可进入条件相似;⑤ 林地、草地、水域分别为3条廊道的唯一休闲游憩环境;⑥ 3条廊道所在的林地、草地、水域面积接近。
2.2.2 评价指标选取及量化 随机效用理论认为个体会选择能够提供最大效用的行动方 案[35],当个体针对各类生态游憩空间做出某种休闲行为选择时,也间接对相应生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行了权衡[36]。基于此形成的选择实验法已成为国外非市场价值评估的重要方法之一[37];另外,相关研究认为实践是价值和价值关系的实际确定者[38]。因此基于游憩者休闲行为选择实践对生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行评价是一种较为可行的方法。通过实际观察分析,针对城市特定生态游憩空间,潜在休闲游憩者的选择行为主要体现在如下方面：① 是否选择进入特定生态空间进行休闲游憩?② 在特定生态空间中选择休闲游憩多长时间?③ 是否各类人群都倾向于选择在该生态空间中进行休闲游憩?在相同客源市场背景下,针对不同生态游憩空间,通过获取上述问题的定量回答及比较,可对各生态游憩空间的休闲价值进行对比。基于此,本文采用“休闲趋向度”、“休闲粘性”、“客源适应度”这三项指标对休闲游憩者针对特定生态空间的游憩行为选择进行描述（图2）。休闲趋向度以每条游道上单位时间内选择进入的休闲游憩者平均数量为依据进行量化,休闲粘性以各条游道上休闲游憩者的平均逗留时间为依据进行量化,客源适应度以潜在客源市场中各客源群体倾向于选择在特定生态空间中进行休闲游憩的程度为依据进行量化。三项指标的量化结果分别用“休闲趋向度指数”、“休闲粘性指数”、“客源适应度指数”表示。
Fig. 2 Selection of indexes for evaluating the leisure value of urban ecological recreation space

图2 城市生态游憩空间休闲价值评价指标选择

（1）休闲趋向度指数。反映游客趋于进入生态游憩空间进行休闲游憩的程度,其计算公式为：
式中：Wh为特定观测日第h个观测时段内休闲游憩者对特定生态游憩空间内廊道的休闲趋向度指数;Qt为该观测时段内第t次（每次观测所持续的时间相同）在特定生态空间内廊道上所观测到的休闲游憩者人数;Ak为林地、草地、水域三类生态空间中第k类生态空间区廊道上全年各次所观测到的休闲游憩者人数的平均值。
（2）休闲粘性指数。反映生态游憩空间吸引游客驻留休闲的特性,其计算公式为：
式中：Rh为特定观测日第h个观测时段中特定生态游憩空间内廊道的休闲粘性指数;Ci为该观测时段内处于休闲游憩状态的第i位游客在特定生态空间内廊道上的游憩时间;Pj为第j个参与试验的非休闲游憩状态个体通过特定生态空间内廊道所用的时间。
（3）客源适应度指数。反映生态游憩空间对特定客源地各类细分人群休闲游憩选择偏好的综合匹配程度。本文通过分析特定生态空间对客源地老年、中年、青年、少儿各类人群休闲游憩选择偏好的综合匹配程度来判断相应生态空间的客源适应度指数,其计算公式为：
式中：Sh为特定观测日第h个观测时段特定生态空间内廊道相对于客源地各类人群的客源适应度指数;Bf为该观测时段特定生态空间内廊道相对于老年、中年、青年、少儿这四类游客中第f类游客的客源适应度指数;Nf为该观测时段的单位时间内特定生态空间廊道上第f类游客的平均数量;D为该观测时段的平均单位时间内特定生态空间廊道上的游客总人数;Mf为客源地第f类年龄段人口数量;E为客源地人口总量。
2.2.3 评价指标值调查获取 （1）评价指标值的动态观测。生态游憩空间的休闲价值会随气温、日照等条件的变化而变化。为全面评价各类生态游憩空间的休闲价值,本文对休闲价值的各项评价指标进行了全年度动态观测。在2013年1-12月,每周分别选择两天较适宜出游的时间,在所选定的林地、草地、水域的观测廊道上对各项指标值进行观测。每个观测日分7:00-9:00、10:00-12:00、13:00-15:00、16:00-18:00、19:00-21:00 5个观测时段。全年共计观测104天,观测日中气温变化幅度为-3 ℃~39 ℃,风速变化幅度为0~6级;天气阴晴变化情况为：晴天37天、阴天22天、多云天45天;观测日中有33天为周末。在全年的观测对象中,男性占49.34%,女性占50.66%;老、中、青、少人口占比分别为28.66%、35.99%、19.12%、16.23%,与常熟市人口年龄结构有一定相似性。
（2）休闲趋向度指数测算。第一,在每个观测日的每个观测时段,分6次进行间隔性观测统计,每次以10 min为一个时间单位,分别统计单位时间内林地、草地、水域区观测廊道上的休闲游憩者人数。第二,采用式（1）计算每个观测日各观测时段内特定生态游憩空间的休闲趋向度指数。然后按不同时间尺度求平均,分别得到特定生态空间在每月、全年第h个时段的休闲趋向度指数,以及其各日、各月、全年的休闲趋向度指数。
（3）休闲粘性指数测算。第一,在研究过程中组织24名实验者（老年、中年、青年、少儿各6名）分别以正常行走速度通过林地、草地、水域区的观测廊道,计算24名实验者分别通过林地、草地、水域区的观测廊道的平均时间。第二,在所选定的林地、草地、水域区的观测廊道上,在观测日分时段抽样观测单个休闲游憩者在相应观测廊道上的游憩时间。受客流量变化影响及工作精力所限,单条观测廊道上全年各观测时段内观测样本数最少为13人,最多为90人,平均为36人。第三,采用式（2）计算每个观测日各观测时段内特定生态游憩空间的休闲粘性指数。然后按不同时间尺度求平均,分别得到特定生态空间在每月、全年第h个时段的休闲粘性指数,以及其各日、各月、全年的休闲粘性指数。
（4）客源适应度指数测算。第一,根据国家统计局人口统计口径,将休闲游憩者划分为老年（60岁及以上）,中年（35~59岁）,青年（15~34岁）和少儿（14岁及以下）。在调查中,对于年龄段特征明显的游客,通过观察法获取其年龄段信息;对于年龄段特征不明显的调查对象,则请其勾选调查表单中的年龄段选项。第二,在每个观测日的每个观测时段,分别针对林地、草地、水域区的观测廊道,分6次进行间隔性观测统计,每次以10 min为一个时间单位,调查特定廊道上单位时间内各年龄段休闲游憩者数量及休闲游憩者总人数;对相对应的6次观测结果求平均,得到特定时段内特定生态空间观测廊道上单位时间内各年龄段游客人数的平均值及游客总人数的平均值。第三,根据《常熟市2012年人口和计划生育事业发展报告》及相关文献[39]推算,2013年初,常熟市总人口为106.78万,其中老年、中年、青年及少儿占总人口比例分别为25.18%、44.90%、20.07%、9.85%。第四,采用式（3）计算各类生态游憩空间内游道在特定观测时段内对各年龄段人群及对全部人群的客源适应度指数,然后根据需要求平均,得到特定生态空间每月、全年第h个时段,以及各日、各月、全年对特定年龄段人群及对全部客源群体的适应度指数。
2.2.4 检验各生态游憩空间特定指标值的差异显著性 采用SPSS软件对林地、草地、水域之间特定指标日平均值的差异显著性进行检验。如表1所示,各生态游憩空间之间各观测日特定指标值的差异显著性值均为0.000（<0.05）,反映出林地、草地、水域的休闲趋向度之间、休闲粘性之间、客源适应度之间均有十分显著的差异,这会造成各生态游憩空间休闲价值的明显差别。
Tab. 1 The significance level of value difference between different recreational eco-spaces' indexes (Sig.)

表1 各生态游憩空间之间特定指标值的差异显著性值(Sig.)

指标 休闲趋向度指数 休闲粘性指数 客源适应度指数
空间类型 草地 水域 草地 水域 草地 水域
林地 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
草地 0.000 0.000 0.000
2.2.5 生态游憩空间休闲价值评价 由于生态游憩空间的休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度之间有较强关联性,各项指标对休闲价值的影响权重很难确定,同时为了便于对比分析,需要合成差异性明显的休闲价值指数值,因此本文采用乘法合成法[40],分别采用式（4）~式（6）计算各类生态游憩空间在每个观测日、每月、全年第h个时段的休闲价值指数。
V hx = W hx × R hx × S hx （4）
式中：Vhx、Whx、Rhx、Shx分别为特定生态空间在第x个观测日第h个观测时段的休闲价值、休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度的指数;Vhy、Why、Rhy、Shy分别为特定生态空间在第y个月第h个观测时段的休闲价值、休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度的指数;vh、wh、rh、sh分别为特定生态空间全年第h个观测时段的休闲价值、休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度的指数。
分别采用式（7）~式（9）计算各类生态空间每日、每月、全年的休闲价值指数。
式中：Vx、Wx、Rx、Sx分别为特定生态空间在第x个观测日的休闲价值、休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度的指数;Vy、Wy、Ry、Sy分别为特定生态空间在第y个月的休闲价值、休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度的指数;v、w、r、s分别为特定生态空间在全年的休闲价值、休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度的指数。

3 结果分析

3.1 各生态游憩空间休闲价值时间分布比较

3.1.1 各生态游憩空间休闲价值时间分布 （1）表2及图3~图6显示：全年各生态游憩空间休闲价值及各相关指数值较高的时间段分布存在差异,且呈现集中分布特征;各生态空间的相应指数值在各月、各时段的分布特征不同。这使全年各类生态游憩空间的休闲价值在时间分布方面存在一定程度的互补性。
Fig. 3 Results of analysis on the leisure tendency index to each ecological recreation space in different periods

图3 各生态游憩空间休闲趋向度指数分时段调查分析结果

Fig. 4 Results of analysis on the leisure viscidity index of each ecological recreation space in different periods

图4 各生态游憩空间休闲粘性指数分时段调查分析结果

Fig. 5 Results of analysis on the adaptation index of each eco-space to recreationist in different periods

图5 各生态游憩空间客源适应度指数分时段调查分析结果

Fig. 6 Results of analysis on the leisure value index of each ecological recreation space in different periods

图6 各生态游憩空间休闲价值指数分时段调查分析结果

Tab. 2 The periods' distribution in different months when the leisure value of certain ecological recreation space is higher

表2 各生态游憩空间休闲价值较高时段在不同月份的分布情况

生态空间类型 7:00-9:00 10:00-12:00 13:00-15:00 16:00-18:00 19:00-21:00
林地 无 1-12月 1-9月、11-12月 5-9月 无
草地 无 1-5月、10-12月 1-3月、11-12月 3-10月 6-9月
水域 3月、11月 1-5月、10-12月 1-5月、10-12月 4-9月 4-10月

注：以每月内各观测日特定时段特定生态游憩空间该类指数的平均值为基础进行统计;以全年三类生态游憩空间该类指数的均值为参照,当特定月份某时段特定生态空间的该类指数值大于等于参照值时,则视为其较高。

（2）表3显示：在三类生态空间中,全年林地各项指数值较突出的时间平均最短,反映出林地休闲价值的时间局限性较明显;水域休闲价值的时间局限性最小,草地则处于中间水平。这是全年各类生态游憩空间休闲价值不同的重要原因之一。全年草地休闲趋向度在三类生态空间中最突出的时间很少（图3）,且草地休闲粘性、林地客源适应度的时间局限性非常明显（图4、图5）,是二者休闲价值的重要限制因素。
Tab. 3 The percentage of the time when certain index's value of certain ecological recreation space is at a higher or highest level throughout the year (%)

表3 全年各类生态游憩空间各项指数值处于较高及最高水平时间的比例（%）

指标类型 林地 草地 水域
较高 最高 较高 最高 较高 最高
休闲趋向度指数 38.33 26.67 43.33 13.33 55.00 60.00
休闲粘性指数 38.33 30.00 21.67 3.33 65.00 66.67
客源适应度指数 26.67 0 66.67 48.33 50.00 51.67
休闲价值指数 46.67 23.33 41.67 11.67 51.67 65.00
平均 37.50 20.00 43.34 19.17 55.42 60.84

注：统计及比较方式与表2相同。

（3）平均每天各生态空间的各项指数值均受外部条件影响而处于变化之中,每天各类生态空间休闲价值的时段分布特征同样差异性明显,最高及最低值出现的时间各不相同（图7）,使各类生态空间休闲价值在每天各个时段同样存在一定程度的互补性。
Fig. 7 Annual average change of each index value of each ecological recreation space within each observational day

图7 各生态游憩空间各项指数在各观测日内变化的全年平均状况

3.1.2 不同时间各生态游憩空间休闲价值影响因素比较 全年不同时间的气温、光照、景观等环境条件不同,对研究区生态游憩空间的休闲游憩条件产生不同影响。① 全年及各天外部环境变化的阶段性使各生态游憩空间休闲价值较高的时段呈现一定的集中性（表2）。伴随着全年不同时间的气温变化,研究区生态游憩空间适于游憩的时间长度、景观条件等会发生变化;各观测日气温（极值平均气温）与户外游憩者人数之间的正向关联性较为明显（图8）,且全年林地、水域休闲价值变化趋势与气温变化趋势有一定相似性,反映出随气温升高,研究区林地、水域适于休闲游憩的时间更长,条件更好、更充分;但年气温变化对草地休闲价值的影响较小。② 林地的气候调节作用较明显,在温度较高、光照较强的时间,林地的遮阳、蒸腾等作用使其形成有一定休闲游憩比较优势的小环境,增强休闲粘性（图4）;在全年大部分观测日的10:00-15:00,林地的气温、光照、湿度等条件同外部差异较大,该时段林地相关指标的年平均值也处于其变化轨迹的最高水平（表4）;在7:00-9:00、16:00-18:00,林地的休闲比较优势变小;在19:00-21:00,由于夜色下林地中视野及活动空间受限,林地已不具有休闲比较优势（图7）。③ 草地缺乏屏障物,其休闲游憩条件与外部高度一致;对比图3~图6,发现草地各相关指标的显著值也主要出现在大部分观测日研究区户外气温、光照等条件较适宜休闲的时间：16:00-18:00,其次是10:00-12:00;在19:00-21:00、13:00-15:00、7:00-9:00,户外气温、光照等条件的年平均游憩适宜性依次降低,草地的休闲价值也随之变小（表4）。④ 水域有一定的休闲小环境营造作用,但弱于林地。全年正午的气温和光照条件等削弱了水域在该时段的游憩适宜性（图6b、图6c）。在全年许多观测日的19:00-21:00,水域的气温、湿度、风速等优势使其该时段的休闲趋向度、休闲粘性大幅度提升（图3e、图4e）,使该时段水域休闲价值的年平均值非常显著（图6e）;在气温较低及较适中的观测日中的10:00-15:00,水域的气温、光照、景观、视野等条件使其仍具有一定休闲游憩比较优势（图6b、图6c）,在气温较低的观测日中的7:00-9:00、16:00-18:00,水域休闲游憩的适宜性已变得很小（图5a、图5d）,削弱了全年水域在相应时段的休闲价值（表4）。
Fig. 8 Changes of the leisure value indexes and the recreationists’ number of research objects throughout the year

图8 全年研究对象的休闲价值指数及游憩者数量变化

Tab. 4 Periods sequencing according to each index's annual average value (from high to low) of each ecological recreation space in different periods

表4 根据全年平均每天不同时段各生态游憩空间各指标值由高到低对时段进行排序

排序 林地 草地 水域
W R S V W R S V W R S V
1 10-12 13-15 13-15 13-15 16-18 16-18 16-18 16-18 19-21 19-21 10-12 19-21
2 13-15 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 19-21 10-12 10-12 13-15 10-12 13-15 10-12
3 16-18 7-9 16-18 16-18 19-21 10-12 13-15 19-21 16-18 16-18 19-21 13-15
4 7-9 16-18 7-9 7-9 13-15 13-15 7-9 13-15 10-12 13-15 16-18 16-18
5 19-21 19-21 19-21 19-21 7-9 7-9 19-21 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9

注：表内W、R、S、V分别为休闲趋向度、休闲粘性、客源适应度、休闲价值的指数;因表幅有限,时间表达予以简化,“a-b”表示“a:00-b:00”;为了便于比较,特将表内特定时段的数字设置为特殊格式。

3.2 各生态游憩空间对各年龄段群体的休闲价值比较

3.2.1 各生态空间对不同人群的休闲游憩适应度 （1）表5显示：针对老年群体,林地的休闲游憩适应度更高,其次是水域,再次是草地;针对中年群体,水域的休闲游憩适应度更高,林地和草地对中年人的休闲游憩适应度大体相同;针对青年及少儿群体,草地的休闲游憩适应度均最高,其次是水域,再次是林地。
Tab. 5 The adaptation indexes of each ecological recreation space to different aged recreationists in each month

表5 各月各生态游憩空间对各年龄段客源的适应度指数

空间类型 年龄段 1月 2月 3月 4月 5月 6月 7月 8月 9月 10月 11月 12月 全年平均
林地 A 1.64 1.61 1.59 1.57 1.54 1.54 1.49 1.46 1.55 1.61 1.65 1.65 1.57
M 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.89 0.90 0.84
Y 0.44 0.54 0.59 0.67 0.72 0.76 0.80 0.80 0.65 0.49 0.40 0.39 0.61
C 1.18 1.10 1.14 1.09 1.15 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.14 1.26 1.24 1.26 1.16
草地 A 0.93 0.91 0.85 0.79 0.75 0.70 0.64 0.62 0.77 0.88 0.92 0.93 0.80
M 0.78 0.81 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.90 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.77 0.84
Y 1.04 1.06 1.11 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.12 1.05 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.09
C 1.98 1.90 1.87 1.89 1.94 2.00 2.06 2.11 1.97 1.95 2.02 2.01 1.98
水域 A 1.16 1.13 1.08 1.04 1.00 0.94 0.89 0.87 0.96 1.04 1.15 1.18 1.04
M 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.95 0.94 0.95
Y 0.64 0.65 0.68 0.71 0.75 0.78 0.79 0.80 0.74 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.71
C 1.70 1.73 1.78 1.83 1.85 1.89 1.96 1.90 1.87 1.82 1.66 1.67 1.80

注：A、M、Y、C分别表示老年、中年、青年、少儿。

（2）表6显示,各类生态游憩空间在全年不同时段对不同年龄群体的休闲游憩适应度不同。各生态游憩空间对老年群体的平均休闲游憩适应度最高的时段为7:00-9:00,对中年、青年、少儿的平均休闲游憩适应度最高的时段分别为19:00-21:00、13:00-15:00、10:00-12:00。
Tab. 6 The adaptation indexes of each ecological recreation space to different aged recreationists in different periods calculated by annual average

表6 全年不同时间段各生态游憩空间对各年龄段客源的适应度指数

时段 林地 草地 水域 平均
A M Y C A M Y C A M Y C A M Y C
7:00-9:00 2.75 0.44 0.39 0.33 1.68 0.82 0.49 1.25 2.43 0.64 0.24 0.68 2.29 0.63 0.37 0.75
10:00-12:00 1.36 0.96 0.42 1.65 0.57 0.82 1.20 2.39 0.49 1.07 0.59 3.03 0.81 0.95 0.74 2.36
13:00-15:00 1.17 0.73 0.90 1.96 0.44 0.97 1.10 2.32 0.54 0.98 1.05 2.14 0.72 0.89 1.02 2.14
16:00-18:00 1.20 1.07 0.52 1.33 0.31 0.67 1.58 2.74 0.94 1.03 0.92 1.22 0.82 0.92 1.01 1.76
19:00-21:00 1.39 0.99 0.79 0.54 1.03 0.90 1.06 1.18 0.78 1.05 0.75 1.96 1.07 0.98 0.87 1.23
平均 1.57 0.84 0.61 1.16 0.80 0.84 1.09 1.98 1.04 0.95 0.71 1.80 1.14 0.88 0.80 1.65

注：A、M、Y、C分别表示老年、中年、青年、少儿。

3.2.2 各生态空间对不同人群休闲游憩适应度的影响因素比较 不同年龄段群体的休闲游憩诉求,以及各类生态空间的自身特征均存在差异。① 老年人在休闲游憩中对舒适度的要求更高、康体健身需求更强烈、对环境条件的变化更为敏感,因此其更偏好空气质量较好、气候调节作用较强、休闲游憩小环境特征更明显的林地休闲游憩,其次为水域。② 中年人的闲暇时间主要分布在每天下班之后,而全年水域在此时段的休闲游憩适宜性最为突出,因此水域对中年群体的休闲游憩适应度更高,其次是林地和草地。③ 青年群体在休闲游憩中的活动性更强,常与同龄人结伴而行且相互之间互动较多;同时,青年群体对气温等因素变化的敏感性相对较弱。因此其在休闲游憩过程中更偏好休闲游憩活动空间更广阔、与外部宏观环境条件一致性较强的草地,其次是水域和林地。④ 少儿群体的一些游憩活动特征与青年有部分相似之处,因此其对生态游憩空间的偏好与青年相似。另外,少儿群体在休闲游憩过程中常有其他类型人群陪伴,其休闲游憩偏好会受同行者的影响。⑤ 受不同个体闲暇时间分布及休闲游憩目的差异的影响,各年龄段群体休闲游憩的主要时段不同,对不同时段各生态游憩空间对不同人群的休闲游憩适应度造成直接影响。

3.3 全年各生态游憩空间休闲价值比较

3.3.1 全年各生态游憩空间的休闲价值 表7反映了全年各生态游憩空间的休闲价值。全年水域明显较高的休闲价值反映出休闲游憩者较明显的亲水特性;全年各类休闲游憩者对草地的游憩偏好高于林地,但差距相对较小。
3.3.2 全年相关因素对生态游憩空间休闲价值影响的比较 生态游憩空间的休闲价值受其环境舒适度、可游赏性、适游时间长度、游憩活动空间等因素的影响。调查分析发现：① 林地较好的环境舒适度及游赏性使其有相对较高的休闲粘性指数（表7）,但林地适游时间长度、游憩活动空间的局限性削弱了其休闲趋向度与客源适应度（图3、图5）;② 不同人群的闲暇时间段及游憩活动强度不同,全年草地在适游时间长度及游憩活动空间方面的优势使其能迎合更多类型人群的休闲游憩需求（图5）,但草地的环境舒适度及可游赏性相对不突出,削弱了其休闲粘性（图4）;③ 全年水域在环境舒适度及适游时间长度方面具有优势,也有一定可游赏性,其休闲趋向度及休闲粘性最突出（图3、图4）,但水域在游憩活动空间方面的局限性在一定程度上削弱了其客源适应度（图5）;④ 在各种因素影响下,全年选择进入水域区休闲游憩的人数最多,游憩者在水域区逗留的时间最长（表7）,倾向于选择水域区进行休闲游憩的人群多样化程度虽不及草地,但优于林地,这些因素使全年水域区的休闲价值明显较高;⑤ 与林地相比,全年平均每位游憩者虽然在草地区的逗留时间较短,但选择进入草地区游憩的人数较多,全年倾向于选择草地进行休闲游憩的人群多样化程度也较高,影响了林地、草地休闲价值的对比关系。
Tab. 7 The annual mean value of each index of each ecological recreation space

表7 各生态游憩空间各项指数的年平均值

生态空间类型 休闲趋向度指数 休闲粘性指数 客源适应度指数 休闲价值指数
林地 0.87 1.22 1.05 1.11
草地 0.92 1.18 1.18 1.28
水域 1.20 1.36 1.13 1.84

4 结论与讨论

本文基于游憩者休闲游憩行为,设计了城市生态游憩空间休闲价值评价方法,对城市主要类型生态游憩空间休闲价值进行动态比较分析,主要结论如下：
（1）在各生态游憩空间休闲价值时间分布方面：① 全年各类生态游憩空间休闲价值时间分布的不均衡特征明显;② 水域客源适应度,草地休闲粘性及休闲趋向度,林地休闲粘性、休闲趋向度及客源适应度的时段局限性均较突出,在此影响下,各生态游憩空间休闲价值的时间局限性由弱到强依次为水域、草地和林地;③ 各类生态游憩空间的各项指标值会随外部条件变化而变化,但变化趋向及幅度的不同使各生态游憩空间的休闲功能在时间维度上形成一定错位和互补;④ 全年除气温偏高及偏低时段之外的大部分时间,水域各项指标值在三类生态游憩空间中均为最高;而在全年大部分时间,林地与草地的各指标值均较低,其中林地客源适应度、草地休闲粘性偏低的时间占比过高;⑤ 在三类生态空间中,林地休闲价值处于最高水平的时间不足全年的1/4,主要分布在外部气温较高、光照较强的时段;草地休闲价值处于最高水平的时间不足全年的1/8,主要分布在外部气温、光照等条件较适宜休闲的时段。
（2）在各生态游憩空间对各年龄段人群的休闲游憩适应性方面：① 林地对老年人的休闲游憩适应度最高、中年人更偏好水域休闲游憩、青年及少儿更偏好草地休闲游憩;② 不同时段生态游憩空间对各年龄段人群的休闲游憩适应度不同,老年、中年、青年、少儿最偏好的休闲游憩时段分别为7:00-9:00、19:00-21:00、13:00-15:00、10:00-12:00。
（3）在各生态游憩空间休闲价值影响因素方面：① 在户外气温、光照、风速等条件较不适宜休闲游憩的时段,林地具有形成差异化休闲小环境的优势,水域次之,而草地的休闲条件同外部高度一致。但在部分时段,林地中观景视野受限、游客活动所需光线不足及活动空间受限等削弱了林地的休闲价值;气温偏高或偏低、光照偏强、风速较大等因素削弱了草地和水域休闲价值;较有限的游憩活动空间等对水域休闲价值造成一定消极影响。② 在各生态游憩空间的各项指标中,林地休闲趋向度与客源适应度、草地休闲趋向度、水域客源适应度的总体水平相对滞后,对相应生态游憩空间的休闲价值造成一定制约。③ 在各种因素影响下,全年水域的休闲价值最突出,然后依次为草地和林地。
根据本文的研究成果,可得出如下启示：
（1）城市生态游憩空间配置方面。对各类生态空间进行兼顾,使各类生态游憩空间休闲功能在时间分布方面、对不同人群的适应性方面形成互补,提升整个生态游憩区的休闲服务能力。在组织生态游憩线路时,可根据不同时段各生态游憩空间休闲价值大小安排游憩节点。可根据各年龄段人群对各类生态游憩空间的偏好及其空间分布,确定城市不同地点各类生态游憩空间配置方案：在老年人较多的居住区设置更多林地,在青年人较多的学校及游乐场等区域增加草地比例,在中年人较多的写字楼等区域适当多设置水域等。
（2）城市生态游憩空间休憩设施建设方面。可根据各类生态游憩空间休闲价值比值,确定各生态游憩空间中休憩设施的配置比例,在市场条件、面积相似的休闲林地、草地、水域区设置不同面积的廊道,配设不同数量的休憩座椅;根据各生态游憩空间休闲粘性大小,设置游道的弯曲程度等。
（3）城市生态游憩空间经营管理方面。根据各生态游憩空间休闲价值时间分布、各类人群所偏好的休闲游憩时段等对各生态游憩空间中的商业经营内容及模式进行动态调整,以提升休闲经济效益。根据各生态游憩空间休闲价值的动态变化,对各生态游憩空间进行动态化管理和维护,如在7-8月的19:00-21:00,水域的休闲服务功能远高于其他时间,可在水域游憩区增设流动垃圾箱及厕所、可移动的休憩座椅,增派安保环卫人员等。
（4）城市生态游憩空间自身建设方面。针对林地,可对疏密林进行合理搭配,在晚间增设灯光,既保持林地在制造差异化休闲小环境方面的优势,又提升林地的观景视野、以及其在部分时段的气温和光照,扩充游客活动空间,以进一步提高其在时间维度及客源群体方面的休闲游憩适应性;针对草地,在保持其视野开阔、可接触性高等优势的基础上,适当设置树丛等屏障物、花丛等景观物,以弥补其在营造休闲小环境、提供可观赏性景观方面的不足,提升其休闲趋向度及休闲粘性,克服其休闲功能的时段局限性。针对水域,可通过适度增设绿色植物、设置水岸对景及廊亭、提升水体可接触性等途径进一步提高其客源适应度。
本文尚需在两个方面做进一步的探讨：① 本文主要分析了居民针对研究区不同生态游憩空间的休闲游憩行为选择特征。若将研究对象换作以外地游客为主要客流的生态游憩空间,游客的休闲游憩行为特征会出现变化,日后需在此方面进一步研究。② 本文选择的研究区为中纬度亚热带季风气候区,若以其他类型气候区为研究对象,不同的气候条件必将使各类生态游憩空间休闲价值呈现不同的动态变化特征,因此有必要开展不同类型气候区的对比性研究。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

References

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Han Qiuping, Zhang Xiuyu, Xu Zhencheng, et al. Forest ecosystem services calculation in Ecological Barrier Region Pearl River Delta: A case study of Shaoguan city. China Population, Resources and Environment, 2014,24(5): 430-434.

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[12]
Lal P.Economic valuation of mangroves and decision-making in the Pacific. Ocean & Coastal Management, 2003, 46(9-10): 823-844.Economists have always argued that only when people bear true economic costs of using natural resources, such as mangroves, that they will have appropriate incentives to use them efficiently and minimize their degradation and losses. More recently, non-economists, too, have started to call for the use of economic valuation information to argue for conservation of mangroves. This paper briefly examines the role economic valuation information can play, at least theoretically, in encouraging conservation of mangroves and increasing efficiency in resource use. In practice, the paper argues that a number of difficulties are likely to be encountered when determining true economic value of mangroves, particularly when small areas of mangroves are involved. A total reliance on economic valuation-based decision-making is questioned, particularly in the light of minimal ecological information often available in small island nations in the Pacific. An alternative decision-making process is proposed in which the relevance of economic valuation-based decision-making is recognized but at a second tier level.

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[13]
Simões P, Barata E, Cruz L.Using count data and ordered models in national forest recreation demand analysis. Environmental Management, 2013, 52(5): 1249-1261.This research addresses the need to improve our knowledge on the demand for national forests for recreation and offers an in-depth data analysis supported by the complementary use of count data and ordered models. From a policy-making perspective, while count data models enable the estimation of monetary welfare measures, ordered models allow for the wider use of the database and provide a more flexible analysis of data. The main purpose of this article is to analyse the individual forest recreation demand and to derive a measure of its current use value. To allow a more complete analysis of the forest recreation demand structure the econometric approach supplements the use of count data models with ordered category models using data obtained by means of an on-site survey in the Bussaco National Forest (Portugal). Overall, both models reveal that travel cost and substitute prices are important explanatory variables, visits are a normal good and demographic variables seem to have no influence on demand. In particular, estimated price and income elasticities of demand are quite low. Accordingly, it is possible to argue that travel cost (price) in isolation may be expected to have a low impact on visitation levels.

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[14]
Bartczak A, Englin J, Pang A.When are forest visits valued the most? An analysis of the seasonal demand for forest recreation in Poland. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2012, 52(2): 249-264.Abstract<br/>While the demand for forest recreation has been a topic covered in many studies, little attention has been paid so far to seasonal demand. In a forest context, the seasonal analysis is particularly interesting because of inter-temporal change in forest attributes throughout the year which can influence trip-taking behavior. In this paper, the model of seasonal forest visitation is developed to provide a richer understanding of the role played by seasonal fluctuation on a distribution of forest social benefits. The analysis is based on an on-site survey conducted in four forests in Poland. Results show that the most valuable forest trips are those taken in fall and that seasonal trips are separable.<br/>

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[15]
高雅, 林慧龙. 草地生态系统服务价值估算前瞻. 草业学报, 2014, 23(3): 290-301.本研究将草地生态系统生态服务价值评估分为4个步骤进行,分别为:内涵确认、功能分类、指标设定及价值核算,并按此顺序将草地生态系统服务价值评估的研究进展做了阐释,发现现有的草地生态系统服务价值评估研究,在内涵确认、指标设立、评估方法及计算结果方面都存在很大分歧。主要原因有三:1)没有充分认识到草地生态系统内部存在的异质性特征;2)对评估对象的认识存在偏差,没有找到真正的评估对象,从而导致评估过程中出现重复计算问题;3)对价值评价的主观性特点,以及价值与利益相关者之间的关系缺乏认识。针对以上分析,基于草地综合顺序分类法(CSCS)提出了草地生态系统服务价值评估的实践方案,包含确定研究空间尺度及其内部草地类型,确定研究范围内的利益相关者,选择评估指标和合适的评估方法四步骤,并强调实地研究在草地生态系统服务价值评估中的重要作用。

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[Gao Ya, Lin Huilong.The prospects for rangeland ecosystem services evaluation. Acta Prataculturae Sinica, 2014, 23(3): 290-301.]

[16]
Biedenweg K, Akyuz K, Skeele R.Balancing riparian management and river recreation: Methods and applications for exploring floater behavior and their interaction with large wood. Environmental Management, 2012, 50(2): 283-295.Abstract<br/>River managers are tasked with meeting both ecological and human needs. In the Puget Sound lowland, riparian management often includes placing or allowing the presence of large wood to stabilize riverbanks and enhance salmon habitat. Although this practice benefits humans by protecting infrastructure and natural resources, it is unclear how such practices interact with an additional human interest, recreation. Furthermore, we were unable to find studies that describe how an agency can go about researching the interaction between recreation and large wood management practices. This study tested methods for describing and estimating the number of river floaters, where they float in relationship to river projects, the risks they take while floating, and their perceptions of large wood in the river. Selecting a high-use suburban river in Washington State, we used riverside observations, interviews, and an infrared counter to gather data in the summer of 2010. Statistical analyses provided general characteristics of users, trends in engaging in risky behaviors, and estimates of use for the entire season and on the busiest day. Data mapping with GIS presented the density of use along the river and frequency of use of specific float routes. Finally, qualitative analysis of interviews clarified floaters’ perspectives of large wood. To address the multiple mandates of river managers, it is important to understand recreation users, the factors that could be putting them at risk, and how the actual users perceive large wood in the river. This study demonstrates methods for scientifically gathering such information and applying it when making riparian management decisions.<br/>

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[17]
赵军, 杨凯. 生态系统服务价值评估研究进展. 生态学报, 2007, 27(1): 346-356.生态系统服务价值评估是当前生 态经济学和环境经济学的研究热点和焦点。在系统回顾国内外生态系统服务价值评估研究进展的基础上,从研究对象、价值构成、研究方法、时空过程等4个方面对 生态系统服务价值评估的当前特征进行了分析,探讨了价值评估中评估基础、评价方法以及结论应用等问题。指出国内必须加强生态系统服务理论和方法研究,展望 了未来生态系统服务价值评估研究和工作的重点领域。

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[Zhao Jun, Yang Kai.Valuation of ecosystem services characteristics issues and prospects. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2007, 27(1): 346-356.]

[18]
王军, 严慎纯, 余莉, 等. 土地整理的生态系统服务价值评估与生态设计策略: 以吉林省大安市土地整理项目为例. 应用生态学报, 2014, 25(4): 1093-1099.<p>土地整理作为土地利用变化的重要驱动因素,显著改变土地利用和景观格局,对区域生态系统功能及其服务价值产生影响.本文以吉林省大安市的土地整理项目为例,利用生态服务价值模型计算了村域、镇域和县域尺度下土地整理区的生态服务价值及其总量变化.结果表明: 以增加耕地为目标的土地整理项目易造成草地和湿地等具有较高生态服务价值的地类减少,导致不同尺度下土地整理区生态服务价值总量出现不同程度的下降.村域尺度下,整理后研究区总的生态服务价值为796.14万元,较整理前减少10.5%;镇域尺度下,整理后总的生态服务价值为84301.26万元,较整理前减少14.2%;县域尺度下,整理后总的生态服务价值为120585.76万元,较整理前减少33.1%.根据土地整理的生态服务价值评估,从提高生态功能入手,最后提出了土地整理的景观生态设计策略,以期为土地整理的持续发展提供决策依据.</p>

[Wang Jun, Yan Shenchun, Yu Li, et al.Evaluation of ecosystem service value and strategies for ecological design in land consolidation: A case of land consolidation project in Da'an city, Jilin province, China. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 2014, 25(4): 1093-1099.]

[19]
房学宁, 赵文武. 生态系统服务研究进展: 2013年第11届国际生态学大会(INTECOL Congress) 会议述评. 生态学报, 2013, 33(20): 6736-6740.第11届国际生态学大会于8月18日至23日在英国伦敦举行,来自世界各地的2000余位代表参加了会议。此次会议规模宏大、内容丰富、气氛活跃、交流形式多样,讨论了生态学不同专题领域的最新进展。会议中关于生态系统服务的探讨主要从生态系统服务与人类福祉的关系、生态系统服务价值评估,城市可持续发展与生态系统服务三方面展开,强调了不同国家、不同领域之间的交流与协作,并展现了生态系统服务研究中的最新成果以及面临的挑战。对我国生态系统服务研究的启示主要有以下几个方面:(1)加强生态系统服务研究的国际交流与合作,注重跨学科综合型人才的培养。(2)加强对生态系统服务的尺度效应及尺度转换的研究。(3)加强生态系统服务机理的研究。(4)加强新技术在生态系统服务研究的应用,促进生态系统服务制图、模型、动态监测的发展。

DOI

[Fang Xuening, Zhao Wenwu.The research progress on ecological system service: The review of the 11th INTECOL Congress. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2013, 33(20): 6736-6740.]

[20]
Estoque R C, Murayama Y.Examining the potential impact of land use cover changes on the ecosystem services of Baguio city, the Philippines: A scenario-based analysis. Applied Geography, 2012(35): 316-326.The main purpose of this study is to examine the potential impacts of the past and future land use/cover (LUC) changes on the ecosystem services of Baguio city, the Philippines, and discuss their implications for policy development and implementation. Remote sensing-derived LUC maps for 1988, 1998 and 2009, along with GEOMOD, a Geographic Information Systems-based LUC change model, and ecosystem service value (ESV) coefficients were used to facilitate the analysis. The results revealed a decrease in the ESV of Baguio for the past 21 years (1988鈥2009), of which a substantial amount was due to loss of forest cover. Consequently, the human-to-ESV (H-ESV) ratio has decreased over the years. The scenario-based LUC change analysis revealed that if the urban LUC change pattern continues, the total ESV and the H-ESV ratio will also continue to decrease in 2020, especially if the forest cover is not fully protected and conserved. Geospatial tools and techniques facilitate exploratory analysis critical to the understanding of the potential impacts of future LUC changes under different scenarios. Our results highlighted that under the great pressure of urbanization, there is a need to strengthen the proper implementation of policies in order to maintain and improve ecosystem services. Although there are limitations to the estimated ESVs of Baguio to be taken into account in future studies, the magnitude of the estimated changes in the LUC is substantial. Thus, it may still be possible to draw general inferences about the effect of the perceived LUC changes on the estimated ESVs.

DOI

[21]
谢正宇, 李文华, 谢正君, 等. 艾比湖湿地自然保护区生态系统服务功能价值评估. 干旱区地理, 2011, 34(3): 532-540.生态系统服务功能价值评估是提高环境资源有价意识的重要环节,是 推行绿色GDP指标落实的必备条件.采用市场价值法、替代法、碳税法、费用支出法等生态系统服务功能评估方法对新疆艾比湖湿地自然保护区的生态服务功能计 算得出:该系统生态服务功能价值达到68.65×108元/a,是该地区2007年社会生产总值的89.06%.因此,遏制艾比湖湿地系统退化不仅是当地 面临的环境问题,而且是关联社会可持续发展的经济问题.

[Xie Zhengyu, Li Wenhua, Xie Zhengjun, et al.Evaluation of ecological service of Ebinur Lake Wetland Nature Reserve. Arid Land Geography, 2011, 34(3): 532-540.]

[22]
庄大昌, 杨青生. 广州市城市湿地生态系统服务功能价值评估. 热带地理, 2009, 29(5): 407-411.在实地调查和试验的基础上,依据资源经济学和生态经济学的理论和方法,以及广州市城市湿地资源的特点,分析广州市城市湿地资源的价值,并对广州市城市湿地资源的直接利用价值和间接利用价值进行了货币化评估.由此得出湿地资源的总价值量为66.805 3亿元人民币,其中湿地生态系统直接利用价值为66.3318亿元人民币,占99.3%.评估结果表明,广州市城市湿地资源资产价值主要表现在湿地生态系统的直接利用价值.因此,保护好广州市城市湿地生态环境,合理开发广州市城市湿地资源,才能实现其可持续利用,保证区域经济的可持续发展.

DOI

[Zhuang Dachang, Yang Qingsheng.Evaluation of the urban wetlands ecosystem service function in Guangzhou. Tropical Geography, 2009, 29(5): 407-411.]

[23]
董雪旺, 张捷, 刘传华, 等. 条件价值法中的偏差分析及信度和效度检验: 以九寨沟游憩价值评估为例. 地理学报, 2011, 66(2): 267-278.条件价值法(CVM) 是一种基于虚拟市场的公共物品价值评估方法，其假想性使得人们对 其信度和效度缺乏信任，评估结果的精度成为学术界广泛争议的焦点。采用CVM价值评估方 法，对九寨沟世界自然遗产地的游憩价值进行了评估，并结合国内其他相关文献，对CVM在旅 游资源价值评估中存在的偏差进行了分析述评，最后对CVM的评估结果进行了再测信度、内容 效度和收敛效度检验。研究发现：① 九寨沟旅游资源2008、2009 年的游憩价值分别为3.33 亿 元、3.46 亿元。与其他方法相比，CVM的评估结果明显偏低。② CVM在旅游资源价值评估中存 在的偏差包括研究方法本身的偏差和研究实施过程中产生的偏差。前者包括假想偏差、信息偏 差、抗议性偏差以及策略性偏差等；后者包括CVM调查在总体和样本的界定、样本规模的确定、 抽样方式的选择、调查方式和回收率、数据的统计和分析等环节出现的偏差。③ 再测信度检验 表明本研究的信度较高，即评估结果具有较高的稳定性和可重复性；而内容效度和收敛效度检 验则表明本研究对九寨沟进行的CVM调查不具有良好的效度，CVM有低估旅游资源价值的倾 向。④ CVM今后的研究重点应从个案研究向信度和效度检验转向，为此需要尽快建立完善适 合发展中国家的CVM实施规范，提高CVM评估结果的信度和效度。

[Dong Xuewang, Zhang Jie, Liu Chuanhua, et al.Bias analysis and reliability and validity test in contingent valuation method: A case study of assessment of Jiuzhaigou's recreational value. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2011, 66(2): 267-278.]

[24]
Ojeda M I, Mayer A S.Economic valuation of environmental services sustained by water flows in the Yaqui River Delta. Ecological Economics, 2008, 65(1): 155-166.We attempted to estimate the economic value of environmental services provided by restored instream flows in the water-scarce Yaqui River Delta in Mexico. The Yaqui River begins near the U.S.-Mexico border and continues for 400脗 km before reaching the Oviachic dam, but has not reached the nearby Gulf of California for decades due to diversions for irrigation. These diversions have degraded the riparian ecosystem, coastal wetlands, and estuaries. Environmental services provided by restored flows in the Yaqui River would include healthy riverside vegetation, wetlands and estuaries, fish and wildlife habitats, non-use values, and recreation. A contingent valuation survey in 40 neighborhoods in the most populated Delta city, Ciudad Obregon, was administered to estimate non-market values of instream uses. Respondents were given a current and hypothetical Delta scenario (the latter assumed restored water flows in the River) and asked a willingness-to-pay (WTP) question regarding purchasing water for environmental flows through higher water bills. Results from 148 in-person interviews indicated that households would pay an average of 73 pesos monthly. WTP was found related to key variables suggested by economic theory and contingent valuation studies elsewhere: income, educational level, number of children in the household, and initial bid amount. These results will allow decision makers to compare the benefits generated by different water uses, including environmental services, and to manage scarce water resources under a long-term sustainable approach.

DOI

[25]
Lee C K, Mjelde J W.Valuation of ecotourism resources using a contingent valuation method: The case of the Korean DMZ. Ecological Economics, 2007, 63(2-3): 511-520.Findings suggest hypothetical bias is present in the survey. Including a real payment vehicle may reduce hypothetical bias in eliciting willingness-to-pay (WTP). Best estimates are the mean WTP is US $ 16.74 per capita. Aggregate preservation value lies between US $264 and $602million. These findings indicate that conservation of the DMZ and CCZ is not only important for moral and ecological reasons, but the DMZ and CCZ are of considerable economic value to South Koreans. Any development unfriendly to the environment will degrade the quality of the ecosystem of the DMZ, as well as, decrease its economic value.

DOI

[26]
谢高地, 鲁春霞, 肖玉. 青藏高原高寒草地生态系统服务价值评估. 山地学报, 2003, 21(1): 50-55.基于Constaza等提出的方法,在对青藏高原天然草地生态系统服务价值根据其生物量订正的基础上,逐项估算了各种草地类型的各项生态服务价值,得出青藏高原天然草地生态系统每年提供的生态服务价值为257178&times;108元,占全国草地生态系统每年服务价值的1768%。受各类草地生物群落分布广度和单位面积生态服务功能强弱的综合影响,各类草地的生态服务价值贡献率有很大差异,其中,高寒草甸、山地草甸、高寒草原对草地生态系统总服务价值的贡献率分别为6252%、1414%、1292%。根据高寒草地的地域分异特征分亚区进行的生

DOI

[Xie Gaodi, Lu Chunxia, Xiao Yu, et al.The economic evaluation of grassland ecosystem services in Qinghai Tibet Plateau. Journal of Mountain Science, 2003, 21(1): 50-55.]

[27]
江波, 欧阳志云, 苗鸿, 等. 海河流域湿地生态系统服务功能价值评价. 生态学报, 2011, 31(8): 2236-2244.海河流域湿地生态系统给人类提供了许多重要的产品和服务,但在社会经济发展的过程中,这些服务并没有完全被认识到,给海河流域社会经济的可持续发展造成了一定的影响。结合海河流域湿地生态系统的特征、结构及过程,将海河流域湿地生态系统服务功能划分为提供产品功能、调节功能、支持功能及文化服务功能4大类,以2005年为基准年,评价了海河流域湿地生态系统所提供的12类生态系统服务,将这12类服务功能划分为具有直接使用价值的产品和具有间接使用价值的服务。结果表明,海河流域湿地生态系统提供的12类生态系统服务的总价值为4123.66×10<sup>8</sup>元,其中直接使用价值和间接使用价值分别为257.46×10<sup>8</sup>元和3866.20×10<sup>8</sup>元,间接使用价值是直接使用价值的15.02倍。海河流域单位面积的湿地生态系统提供的生态系统服务功能价值为47.05×10<sup>4</sup>元/hm<sup>2</sup>高于单位面积的GDP产值8.10×10<sup>4</sup>元/hm<sup>2</sup>。研究认为海河流域湿地生态系统对支持和保护人类社会具有重要的作用,为管理者和决策者有效的保护和管理湿地提供了重要的信息。

[Jiang Bo, Ouyang Zhiyun, Miao Hong, et al.Ecosystem services valuation of the Haihe River basin wetlands. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2011, 31(8): 2236-2244.]

[28]
Guerry A D, Ruckelshaus M H, Arkema K K, et al.Modeling benefits from nature: Using ecosystem services to inform coastal and marine spatial planning. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management, 2012, 8(1-2): 107-121.People around the world are looking to marine ecosystems to provide additional benefits to society. As they consider expanding current uses and investing in new ones, new management approaches are needed that will sustain the delivery of the diverse benefits that people want and need. An ecosystem services framework provides metrics for assessing the quantity, quality, and value of benefits obtained from different portfolios of uses. Such a framework has been developed for assessments on land, and is now being developed for application to marine ecosystems. Here, we present marine Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST), a new tool to assess (i.e., map, model, and value) multiple services provided by marine ecosystems. It allows one to estimate changes in a suite of services under different management scenarios and to investigate trade-offs among the scenarios, including implications of drivers like climate. We describe key inputs and outputs of each of the component ecosystem service models and present results from an application to the West Coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. The results demonstrate how marine InVEST can be used to help shape the dialogue and inform decision making in a marine spatial planning context.

DOI

[29]
Alpizar F, Carlsson F, Martinsson P.Using choice experiments for non-market valuation. Economic Issues Journal Articles, 2003, 8(1): 83-110.

[30]
Perino G, Andrews B, Kontoleon A, et al.The value of urban green space in Britain: A methodological framework for spatially referenced benefit transfer. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2014, 57(2): 251-272.A meta-analysis of studies valuing urban greenspace in the UK is undertaken to yield spatially sensitive marginal value functions. A geographical information system (GIS) is used to apply these functions to spatial data detailing the location of such greenspace resources in five British cities. Changes in monetary values are computed for the six future scenarios used in the UK National Ecosystem Assessment for the period 2010鈥2060. Different degrees of substitutability between urban greenspaces are considered. These findings are then extrapolated to all major British cities to obtain per household and aggregate valuation estimates for each scenario both with and without distributional weights. While subject to a number of shortcomings in both data availability and methodology, this represents the first systematic and comprehensive attempt to value marginal changes in urban greenspace while accounting for spatial heterogeneity.

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[31]
Casado-Arzuaga I, Onaindia M, Madariaga I, et al.Mapping recreation and aesthetic value of ecosystems in the Bilbao Metropolitan Greenbelt (northern Spain) to support landscape planning. Landscape Ecology, 2014, 29(8): 1393-1405.This paper presents a method to quantify cultural ecosystem services (ES) and their spatial distribution in the landscape based on ecological structure and social evaluation approaches. The method aims to provide quantified assessments of ES to support land use planning decisions. A GIS-based approach was used to estimate and map the provision of recreation and aesthetic services supplied by ecosystems in a peri-urban area located in the Basque Country, northern Spain. Data of two different public participation processes (frequency of visits to 25 different sites within the study area and aesthetic value of different landscape units) were used to validate the maps. Three maps were obtained as results: a map showing the provision of recreation services, an aesthetic value map and a map of the correspondences and differences between both services. The data obtained in the participation processes were found useful for the validation of the maps. A weak spatial correlation was found between aesthetic quality and recreation provision services, with an overlap of the highest values for both services only in 7.2% of the area. A consultation with decision-makers indicated that the results were considered useful to identify areas that can be targeted for improvement of landscape and recreation management.

DOI

[32]
冯维波. 我国城市游憩空间研究现状与重点发展领域. 地球科学进展, 2006, 21(6): 585-592.<p>首先从城市游憩空间的类型、结构、演化、评价、规划设计与游憩行为特征等方面分析了我国目前的研究现状并进行了评述，指出了其中存在的各种问题。在此基础上针对我国城市游憩空间研究面临的机遇与挑战，提出了今后应重点研究的若干方向和领域。</p>

DOI

[Feng Weibo.The progress of urban recreation space research and its major development field in China. Advances in Earth Science, 2006, 21(6): 585-592.]

[33]
James P, Bound D.Urban morphology types and open space distribution in urban core areas. Urban Ecosystems, 2009, 12(4): 417-424.<a name="Abs1"></a>Urban cores are primarily associated with economic activity: they are places where people live, work and engage in a range of leisure activities. Natural elements within the environment are recognised as having an important role in promoting quality of life. An investigation into the urban character of Manchester City Centre (UK) combining an analysis of the surface cover with the mapping of urban morphology types (UMTs) shows the extent to which green space permeates the built matrix. Around 20% of the urban core was covered by evapotranspiring surfaces. UMTs were differentiated along axes which were characterised by the intensity of grassland management and the density of building. The results presented here contribute to the on going debate around the development of cities and the relationship between the natural and built environments and provide guidance for those challenged with designing these environments.

DOI

[34]
刘杰, 严金明, 邱卉. 生态旅游用地分类体系研究. 中国土地科学, 2013, 27(9): 71-77.研究目的:试图建立一套完整的 生态旅游用地分类体系,以规范生态旅游用地发展,促进土地节约集约利用,为编制生态旅游用地专项规划打下基础。研究方法:通过文献研究法和对比分析法,梳 理历次土地利用分类中有关生态旅游的内容,在此基础上提出系统的生态旅游用地分类体系。研究结果:构建了一套包含3个大类、10个二级类、26个三级类的 生态旅游用地分类体系,而且与《土地利用现状分类》国家标准及土地规划用途分类体系做了较好衔接。研究结论:建立与土地利用规划及相关规划衔接的,能适应 生态旅游发展的生态旅游用地分类体系十分必要,而且可行。

DOI

[Liu Jie, Yan Jinming, Qiu Hui.Research on the classification system of eco-tourism land use. China Land Sciences, 2013, 27(9): 71-77.]

[35]
Hensher D, Shore N, Train K.Households' willingness to pay for water service attributes. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2005, 32(4): 509-531.<a name="Abs1"></a>Water consumption and disposal are often taken for granted as essential services with required levels of service quality, yet little is known about how much consumers are willing to pay for specific service levels. As customers in many countries face changing levels of water availability (especially shortages linked possibly to climate change and limited catchment capacity), the need to assess the value (and hence benefit) to society of varying service levels and prices in an effort to secure the provision of and disposal of water has risen on public agendas. In an attempt to establish how much customers are willing to pay for specific levels of service, we use a series of stated choice experiments and mixed logit models to establish the willingness to pay to avoid interruptions in water service and overflows of wastewater, differentiated by the frequency, timing and duration of these events. The empirical evidence is an important input into the regulatory process for establishing service levels and tariffs, as well as useful planning information for agencies charged with finding cost effective ways of delivering services at prices that customers deem to be value for money.

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[36]
马爱慧, 张安录. 选择实验法视角的耕地生态补偿意愿实证研究: 基于湖北武汉市问卷调查. 资源科学, 2013, 35(10): 2061-2066.耕地生态补偿的主要相关利益主体对于生态补偿政策的接受程度和可 能反应,是未来中国设计耕地保护政策时必须考虑的核心问题.本文选用湖北武汉市中心城区与远城区361份市民和383份农户的实地问卷调查数据,从选择实 验法视角,分析城乡居民对于耕地面积、耕地质量与肥力、耕地周边景观与生态环境和耕地保护支付成本4项保护属性及所组合方案政策的可能反应和接受意愿.研 究表明:①城乡居民对除货币属性外的耕地保护属性的偏好与接受意愿存在差异,居民对耕地周边景观与生态环境的关注程度最高,其次是耕地质量与肥力,关注较 少的是耕地面积；②所有耕地保护属性组成的7个方案中,最优方案的支付意愿最高,意味着居民期待耕地面积、耕地质量与肥力和周边的景观与生态环境都得以改 善；③城乡居民之间偏好与意愿存在着差异,这与社会经济背景,区域环境质量与文化程度有较强相关性.因此,以提高周边景观与生态环境属性的耕地保护政策, 是未来耕地保护政策设计首要选择.

[Ma Aihui, Zhang Anlu.Cultivated land ecological compensation willingness based on choice experiments. Resources Science, 2013, 35(10): 2061-2066.]

[37]
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[Fan Hui, Zhao Minjuan.Choice experiments for natural resource non-market evaluation. Resources Science, 2013, 35(7): 1347-1354.]

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[Wang Liangming.On the value evaluation and its standard. Journal of Nanjing Normal University: Social Science, 2006, (4): 17-23.]

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[Qiao Yinling, Luo Shouguan.On population aging and its social influence in Changshu city. Journal of Suzhou Railway Teachers College, 2001, 18(1): 32-36.]

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[Mao Chunyuan, Wen Subin.On the multiplicative model that includes development determinants: A new method to evaluate regional comprehensive competitiveness. Statistics and Decision, 2005, (10): 52-55.]

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