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GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH >

2016 , Vol. 35 >Issue 8: 1576 - 1588

DOI: https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201608014

Articles

Dark tourists' motivations and segmentation at disaster memorials: The case of Beichuan Earthquake Site Area, China

  • WANG Jinwei , 1 ,
  • ZHANG Saiyin 2
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  • 1. School of Tourism Management, Beijing International Studies University, Beijing 100024, China
  • 2. College of Statistics, Capital University of Economics and Business, Beijing 100070, China

Received date: 2016-02-24

  Request revised date: 2016-05-10

  Online published: 2016-08-29

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《地理研究》编辑部
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Abstract

A large number of casualties and property damage are begotten by various natural and man-made disasters in recent years. In order to protect the disaster relics, pay homage to the victims, and disseminate disaster prevention knowledge and other purposes, many memorials have been constructed around the world, millions of tourists visit these memorials every year, and this kind of tourism is so called dark tourism. However, research on dark tourists is far from enough now, which is not convenient for the comprehension of dark tourism and tourism development and management of these memorials. Motivations of dark tourists are analyzed by taking Beichuan Earthquake Site Area as an example; segments and difference of dark tourists are discussed as well.
Based on factor analysis, dark tourism motivations are divided into three types, namely 'entertainment and self-development', 'welfare and education expedition', and 'mourning and exploration of the local characteristics'. 'Mourning and exploration of the local characteristics' is the main motivation of dark tourists, followed by 'welfare and education expedition', and only a small number of dark tourists are based on the 'entertainment and self-development'.
Furthermore, based on cluster analysis, dark tourists are classified into three segments as 'gray tourist', 'black tourist' and 'compound tourist'. Most tourists are 'black tourist' and on the other hand, only a small number of tourists are 'compound tourist'. In addition, the significant segments differ from each other in demographic characteristics, which have been found only on age. Specifically speaking, 'gray tourist' tends to be older than the other two segments of tourists; 'compound tourist' is the youngest group.
Dark tourists' attitudes towards the protection and tourism development of disaster relics are analyzed, most of tourists are in suppose of the protection and tourism development of disaster relics, and more tourists are in suppose of the protection of memorials than tourism development. However, compared with suppose of the protection, suppose of the tourism development is relatively low. This shows that some tourists are not agreeing with disaster relics to be used as tourism attractions, although the value and importance of protection of memorials are realized. Significant differences are found among three segments of tourists, the support level of the protection of disaster relics are becoming smaller as the sequence of 'compound tourists', 'gray tourists' and 'black tourists', however, the support level of the tourism development of earthquake relics is becoming lower as the sequence of 'compound tourists', 'black tourists' and 'gray tourists'.
In the future, the management of Beichuan Earthquake Site Area should focus on the following topics: (1) disseminate the positive value of earthquake memorials and dark tourism to the public; (2) conduct differentiated consumer guide to different segments of tourists, to avoid some morbid tourism behaviors and negative effects to local communities; (3) improve protection, development and management by learning experience and imitating other successful dark tourism sites, both in China and across the world.
Motivations and segments analysis of dark tourist at Beichuan Earthquake Site Area, can be of some reference value, however, restricted by the fact that only natural disaster memorials are discussed, more analysis should be made in the future on man-made disaster memorials, to acquire the tourists' behavior characteristics and disciplines by referring to behavior before travel, experience and perception after travel analysis.

Key words： disaster memorials; dark tourism; tourist; tourism motivation; Wenchuan Earthquake

Cite this article

WANG Jinwei , ZHANG Saiyin . Dark tourists' motivations and segmentation at disaster memorials: The case of Beichuan Earthquake Site Area, China[J]. GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH, 2016 , 35(8) : 1576 -1588 . DOI: 10.11821/dlyj201608014

1 引言

近年来,世界范围内人为灾害和自然灾害频发,导致了严重的人员伤亡和财产损失。与此同时,也遗留下了诸多废墟、遗迹、遗物,以及为此而修建的纪念设施和举行的纪念性节事活动（如遇难者公祭）。它们保留着灾害的基本信息,承载着个人/集体的灾害记忆,能为后世防灾减灾教育和汲取灾害教训提供最为直接的素材[1,2],是灾害事件留给人类不可多得的珍贵“遗产”[3-5]。欧美、日本等发达国家（地区）非常注重对这些“遗产”的保护和活用,其中较为著名的诸如美国的零点地带、日本的北淡震灾纪念公园等。这些灾害纪念地每年都能吸引成千上万的游客,现已成名副其实的“旅游地”[4,6]。为了对这种“到与灾害、伤亡、悲剧等相关的地方进行参观游览”的现象进行描述和识别（identity）,Foley等1996年提出了“黑色旅游”（dark tourism）一词[7],并在2000年出版的《Dark Tourism: The Attraction of Death and Disaster》一书中,对其进行了较为系统的阐述[8]。而后,“黑色旅游”逐渐被大众所熟知和认同,现已成为欧美旅游学术界和大众媒体关注的热点[9]。
旅游动机（tourism motivation）是旅游行为研究中的一个重要概念。它常被描述为个体关于旅游行为的一种意愿和内在需求,是促成旅游行为的心理原动力[10]。作为一类特殊的旅游形式,黑色旅游的动机也同样重要,它不仅助推旅游者的出游,同时还能在一定程度上决定该次旅程的“色度”（shade of darkness）,即“黑色旅游”（black tourism）、“灰色旅游”（grey tourism）、“白色旅游”（pale tourism）[11,12]。因为,在同样的条件下,对灾害和死亡等越是感兴趣的旅游者,其旅游过程的“色度”可能也越深[11,12]。毫无疑问,旅游动机是旅游行为的重要核心所在。正因为如此,Stone等提出只有深入考量黑色旅游者的动机,才有可能全面把握黑色旅游[6]。
但是,纵观黑色旅游的现有研究,其主要集中在“供给”方面,例如,黑色旅游与社会文化（如伦理道德、政治）的关系、灾害与集体记忆/认同、展示/解说与真实性、黑色旅游影响等[13-15]。而对于作为“需求”方的旅游者的动机的研究还比较少。这种理论缺失,不仅不利于全面理解黑色旅游,同时也不利于改善黑色旅游研究“理论脆弱”（theoretically fragile）的现状[6]。因此,以四川省的北川地震遗址区作为案例,对黑色旅游者的动机进行调查分析,并在此基础上对黑色旅游者的类别及其差异进行多方位考察,以期为受灾地的灾后恢复重建和黑色旅游经营管理提供一定参考。同时,也希望能够丰富黑色旅游者行为的研究,并对深入认识黑色旅游有所裨益。

2 文献回顾

目前,关于旅游动机的研究主要有早期的马斯洛需求层次论（Maslow's hierarchy of needs）,以及后来的“旅行生涯阶梯”（travel career ladder）、“逃和寻”维度（escaping and seeking dimensions）和“推—拉”理论（push-pull theory）等[16]。其中,“推—拉”理论由于可操作性强,并能全面反应旅游动机的内外部要素,从而得到学术界广泛认同。该理论认为,旅游动机由“推”和“拉”两部分组成[17-19]。其中,“推”是个体内在的、情感的要素（内部驱动力）,激发着个体旅游意愿的产生,例如逃避喧嚣、放松身心;而“拉”是一种外在的、认知的要素（外部诱因）,由个体对旅游地及吸引物属性的认知而产生,其影响着目的地和对象物的选择,例如感受某地优美的自然风光、森林漫步[18,20]。也就是说,“推”和“拉”两者分别决定了“是否去旅游”和“去哪里旅游”[20,21]。
作为一类特殊的旅游形式,黑色旅游的动机也大致可以从“推”和“拉”两方面来分析[22]。从“推”的角度来看,一般观点认为面对灾难、死亡、亦或苦难（悲剧）,是黑色旅游的初始动机[6,23,24]。Stone等认为,现代社会的伦理道德对“谈论死亡”的束缚和忌讳,导致个体对死亡反思的缺失[15,25]。正因为如此,这恰诱致人们产生了一种探寻“死亡”的叛逆和心理需求。而黑色旅游恰好为这种心理需求提供了一个面对和体验“死亡”的机会,使“社会对死亡的漠视”和“个体对死亡的反思需求”达到一定平衡[25]。在相关研究中,由此而衍生出的诸如反思人生、探寻生命和生活意义等旅游动机也常被提到,并被置于重要位置[6,25-27]。随着研究的深入,尤其是墓祠拜谒、幽灵密会、战迹游巡、监狱探访等黑色旅游子类的引入,其他一些非“死亡”的动机也被发掘了出来,例如,文化认同、社会责任感、教育科考、怀旧情节、内疚与反省等“正面”的动机[27-30],同时也涉及一些看起来并不那么正面的动机,例如,增加自我成就感、满足自我优越感和好奇心,甚至是幸灾乐祸和窥阴癖等“负面”动机[22,26,31-34]。另外,一些一般旅游形式所具有的动机,如休闲放松、社会交往等动机也常被研究者们提到[8,13,27,30]。
从“拉”的角度来看,灾难事件、受灾状况及发生地特征等是吸引人们出行的重要要素。尤其,当这些事件与旅游者存在某种情感或者文化联系时,到灾难事件发生地和纪念地缅怀逝者、纪念灾难事件、支援帮助灾区等行为（动机）就显得“情理之中”[8,27,30,35]。同时,旅游地的遇难者遗物、纪念物及其他相关物品的特质,以及对其的展示和解说方式等都可能成为“拉力”,促成游客到访[22]。另外,需要强调的是,媒体在“拉力”的塑成中起着重要作用[22,36],这是因为媒体对某一灾难的相关报道,不仅可以将事件本身及发生地的情况呈现给公众,同时还可能激发人们对于事件及发生地的关注,并催生一种去当地探寻、见证和确认该事件的动机[22,27]。
由此可见,在“推力”和“拉力”的共同作用下,黑色旅游动机具有复杂多样性的特点。参考黑色旅游“色度”理论[11,12],可以将黑色旅游动机分为三类：① “黑色动机”（black motivation）,主要包括与灾害、死亡、悲剧等相关的、“正向”情感投入型的“悲情化”动机,例如缅怀逝者、纪念灾难事件;② “灰色动机”（grey motivation）,主要包括公益型、科教型的动机,例如参加志愿者活动、科考教育;③ “白色动机”（pale motivation）,不仅包括一般意义上的休闲和社交型的动机,也包括诸如幸灾乐祸、窥阴癖等病态化的“娱乐”动机（“负向”动机）。从三类动机的特性来看,旅游动机的色度越深,则旅程中对灾害、死亡等的“神圣化”倾向越明显;反之,则“娱乐化”倾向越明显（图1）。
Fig. 1 Category of dark tourism motivation

图1 黑色旅游动机类型

本文研究的“地震遗址旅游”是一类重要的黑色旅游。参考黑色旅游动机的已有研究成果,从“推”和“拉”两方面入手,构建其旅游者动机的测评量表。

3 研究区概况与研究方法

3.1 研究区概况

北川地震遗址区位于北川羌族自治县境内,主要由北川老县城地震遗址、5·12汶川特大地震纪念馆、唐家山堰塞湖等三部分构成,是世界上原址原貌保护最完整、规模最大的地震遗址遗迹群之一。2008年汶川大地震后不久,当地政府便对当地的地震遗址及相关地震文物进行全面保护,并设立了专门的管理机构。目前,北川地震遗址区已成为中国灾害纪念、防灾减灾教育、地震科考的重要场所,每年吸引众多游客到访。据5·12汶川特大地震纪念馆的统计,2013年全年共接待旅游者超过100万人次。2014年“十一”黄金周期间（10月1日至7日）,到访游客逾15万人次。毫无疑问,北川地震遗址区已成为一个重要的“旅游地”。
伴随着地震遗址的保护和开发,来自社会各界的质疑声也不绝于耳。2008年7月,有学者建议利用地震遗址遗迹开展“黑色旅游”,以带动四川旅游业的全面恢复和振兴[37]。此建议一经提出,全国范围内立即形成了关于地震遗址开发黑色旅游的可行性和合理性的大讨论。一时间,地震遗址保护及旅游开发,成为了众矢之的,遭到多方面的质疑和抨击。后来,2009年3月的“23亿建地震博物馆”事件、2011年10月的“收费风波”、2013年7月的“洪水淹没地震遗址”事件等使北川地震遗址保护和开发多次陷入舆论漩涡。纵观这几次全国性的大讨论,可以发现,讨论焦点主要集中在地震遗址保护和旅游开发的合理性与必要性两方面。对于当地管理部门来说,消解公众的这些疑虑,并对地震遗址进行有效保护和开发将成为今后很长一段时间内的重要课题。

3.2 问卷设计

在梳理相关文献的基础上,结合2012年以来对研究区的多轮次野外调查所掌握的情况,进行问卷设计。问卷主要包括以下三部分：
（1）旅游者的动机。首先,参考相关文献[23,26,27,30]的旅游动机量表,以及上文“文献回顾”中涉及的其他相关研究,初步设计出本研究的黑色旅游动机量表。然后,针对研究区的实际情况,增加一些与“地震遗址旅游”特征相对应的、本土化的题项,如“防灾减灾教育”“爱国主义教育”;同时,修改题项的用语,使其符合汉语表达习惯。最终,形成包括21个题项的旅游动机量表（表1）。采用5点李克特量表,要求应答者用1（非常不同意）、2（不同意）、3（一般）、4（同意）、5（非常同意）的等级方法来表明自己的态度。
Tab. 1 Measurement index system of dark tourism motivations

表1 黑色旅游动机的测量指标体系

（2）旅游者的态度。结合目前社会中关于北川地震遗址保护和旅游开发的争议,设计了两个态度题项,分别为“我会支持地震遗址或地震文物的保护”和“我会支持地震遗址的旅游开发”。采用5点李克特量表,要求应答者表明自己的态度。
（3）旅游者的人口统计学特征。其主要包括年龄、性别、职业、文化程度、居住地等。其中,“居住地”为填空题,其他则为单选题。

3.3 数据收集与分析方法

2013年8月,在北川地震遗址区内进行了问卷预调查,根据调查效果和被调查者的反馈意见,对问卷的题项语句、布局等做了适当修改和调整,形成正式调查问卷。于2014年5月,在北川地震遗址区内的观光巴士候车点、休息区、购物店等场所,采取随机拦访的方式对旅游者进行问卷调查。全程采取当场发放,填写完毕后,调查人员随即对问卷进行检查、回收的形式进行。本次调查共发放问卷550份,回收487份,回收率88.5％;在剔除不完整及无效问卷（如未完全作答,或所有题目都选择同一个答案的问卷）后,有效问卷455份,有效率93.4%。借助SPSS 22.0对数据进行统计分析。

4 结果分析

4.1 被调查者的基本特征

调查对象的基本情况如表2所示,男性稍多于女性,分别占总样本量的52.3%和47.7%。从年龄构成看,主要集中在20~39岁,占总样本量的61.1%;其次是40~49岁,占16.9%。从游客的受教育程度看,大专（28.8%）及本科（21.8%）较多,共占50.5%,初中及以下占19.3%。从职业构成来看,学生最多,占26.4%,其次是自由职业者（12.7%）和企业职员（13.0%）,最少的为待业（4.0%）和公务员（5.1%）。居住地中,四川省占绝大多数,约86.2%,而非四川省仅占13.8%。
Tab. 2 Demographic characteristics of survey respondents (n=455)

表2 被调查者的人口统计学特征（n=455）

特 征 构 成 数量(个) 比例(%) 特 征 构 成 数量(个) 比例(%)
性别 男 238 52.3 年龄(岁) 0~9 7 1.5
女 217 47.7 10~19 44 9.7
职业 学生 120 26.4 20~29 170 37.4
公务员 23 5.1 30~39 108 23.7
企业职员 59 13.0 40~49 77 16.9
科教人员 31 6.8 50~59 39 8.6
经商者 45 9.9 ≥60 10 2.2
农民 29 6.4 文化程度 初中及以下 88 19.3
自由职业者 58 12.7 中专 76 16.7
离退休人员 13 2.9 高中 37 8.1
待业 18 4.0 大专 131 28.8
其他 59 13.0 本科 99 21.8
居住地 四川省 392 86.2 研究生 24 5.3
非四川省 63 13.8

4.2 黑色旅游者动机的探索性因子分析

对旅游动机的21个项目进行因子分析。根据因子分析的前提要求,首先,对数据进行KMO抽样适当性检验和Bartlett球形检验。检验结果得到,KMO的检验值为0.861,Bartlett球形检验值为4076.560（df=210）,Sig.值为0.000,这表示原始变量之间存在相关性,适合进行因子分析。
利用主成分分析和最大方差旋转法进行处理,保留所有特征值大于1的公因子。结果显示,可以从21个题项中提取出4个公因子,它们的累计贡献率为57.909%。此时,根据以下原则对题项进行筛选：① 删除旋转后因子负荷值小于0.4的题项;② 删除同时在两个或两个以上公因子下,负荷值都大于0.4的题项;③ 删除公因子下只有1道题的题项[38]。经过比对,删除同时在两个公因子下负荷值都大于0.4的X3、X6和X7。同时,由于对前述3个项目的删除,导致第4公因子中仅剩下X2,因此也做删除处理。
根据上述方法,对剩下的17个项目再次进行因子分析。经检验,KMO值为0.844,Bartlett球形检验值为3223.080（df=136）,Sig.值为0.000,表明适合进一步做因子分析。分析发现,可以抽取3个公因子,其累计贡献率为56.235%,且除公因子F1的克朗巴哈系数为0.534（表3）以外,F2和F3的克朗巴哈系数都大于0.8（表3）,表明数据具有较好的可靠性。根据表3的因子载荷矩阵,并参考各个公因子所包含项目的含义,可以对3个公因子分别命名为“娱乐与自我发展”（F1）、“公益与科考教育”（F2）和“缅怀与探寻地方特色”（F3）。
Tab. 3 Exploratory factor analysis of dark tourist's motivations

表3 黑色旅游者动机的探索性因子分析

从表3可以发现,3个公因子的均值中,F3（4.04）最大,F2（3.96）次之,F1（2.35）最低。同时,从各项目的均值来看,X1（4.36）、X4（4.31）、X8（4.17）、X11（4.02）等相对较高,而X15（1.52）、X21（2.13）、X13（2.15）、X14（2.29）、X20（2.37）、X17（2.48）等相对较低。据此可知,旅游者的动机主要是缅怀、见证当地重建和发展、志愿者活动、教育等情感投入型、公益型和科教方面的动机,即“黑色动机”和“灰色动机”;而娱乐休闲型、个人利益型,甚至“幸灾乐祸”型的动机,即“白色动机”,甚弱。

4.3 黑色旅游者的类型划分

为了进一步了解不同动机的黑色旅游者的特性差异,将旅游动机的公因子作为变量,对黑色旅游者进行聚类分析。考虑到黑色旅游者的类别划分缺乏可参考的理论基础,同时也为了便于对不同分类方案进行比选,采用k-均值聚类分析（最大迭代次数为10）。在探索对比了三分法、四分法、五分法等聚类方案后,发现三分法较为合理,各类间的差异显著（P<0.01）,同时也易于根据旅游动机的公因子进行解释（表4）。
Tab. 4 Cluster analysis results of dark tourists' motivations

表4 黑色旅游者动机的聚类分析结果

动机因子 Ⅰ类: 灰色型
(n=177,38.9%)		 Ⅱ类：黑色型
(n=234,51.4%)		 Ⅲ类：复合型
(n=44,9.7%)		 F P
F1 1.65 2.57 4.08 4.756 0.009**
F2 3.98 3.85 4.43 14.906 0.000**
F3 3.96 4.05 4.27 880.757 0.000**

注：**表示在0.01水平上差异显著。

根据每一类的旅游动机特征,可将三类黑色旅游者分别命名为：“灰色型旅游者”、“黑色型旅游者”和“复合型旅游者”。
Ⅰ类：“灰色型旅游者”,共177人,约占38.9%。这一类旅游者,在F2和F3的均值分别为3.98和3.96,而在F1方面的均值仅为1.65。可以看出,此类旅游者不仅具有缅怀逝者等“悲情化”的“黑色动机”,同时,还具有捐助、教育、探寻地方文化和自然特色等情感倾向较为中性的动机。但是,他们对这些动机都未表现出特别强烈的认同。也就是说,他们的旅游动机更多的表现为一种色度较为暗淡的“灰色”。
Ⅱ类：“黑色型旅游者”,共234人,所占比例最高,约为51.4%。此类旅游者,在3个动机因子中,F3的均值（4.05）最高,F2（3.85）次之,F1（2.57）最低。可以看出,此类旅游者不仅对作为“悲情化”动机的缅怀逝者,以及探寻地方文化和自然特色方面具有较高兴趣,同时还兼有捐助、科考教育等情感倾向较为中性的动机。也就是说,他们的旅游动机更多的表现为一种色度较深的“黑色”。
Ⅲ类：“复合型旅游者”,共44人,所占比例最低,仅为9.7%。他们在3个动机因子上的均值都较高,尤其在F2方面,均值达到4.43。此类旅游者的动机不仅具有自我发展、休闲娱乐,甚至还有病态化的“白色动机”,同时也具有探寻地方特色和科考教育、志愿者活动等情感倾向较为中性的“灰色动机”,以及缅怀逝者等“悲情化”的“黑色动机”。也就是说,他们的旅游动机同时较为平衡地兼具了“黑色”“灰色”“白色”等多种动机。

4.4 各类黑色旅游者的人口统计学特征差异

为了进一步明晰各类黑色旅游者的特性差异,对三类旅游者的人口统计学特征的项目进行对比统计,同时对统计结果进行卡方检验,其结果如表5所示。
Tab. 5 Demographic characteristics of segments

表5 各类黑色旅游者的人口统计学特征差异

特 征 构 成 Ⅰ类：灰色型
(n=177)		 Ⅱ类：黑色型
(n=234)		 Ⅲ类：复合型
(n=44)		 卡方值 df Sig.
频数 % 频数 % 频数 %
性 别 男 101 57.1 115 49.1 22 50.0 2.636 2 0.268
女 76 42.9 119 50.9 22 50.0
年 龄(岁) 0~9 3 1.7 3 1.3 1 2.3 32.985 12 0.001**
10~19 5 2.8 30 12.8 9 20.5
20~29 59 33.3 93 39.7 18 40.9
30~39 52 29.4 48 20.5 8 18.2
40~49 39 22.0 30 12.8 8 18.2
50~59 16 9.0 23 9.8 0 0.0
≥60 3 1.7 7 3.0 0 0.0
文化程度 初中及以下 37 20.9 44 18.8 7 15.9 5.982 10 0.817
中专 25 14.1 44 18.8 7 15.9
高中 11 6.2 21 9.0 5 11.4
大专 51 28.8 67 28.6 13 29.5
本科 40 22.6 49 20.9 10 22.7
研究生 13 7.3 9 3.8 2 4.5
职 业 学生 36 20.3 70 29.9 14 31.8 26.139 18 0.097
公务员 11 6.2 9 3.8 3 6.8
企业职员 27 15.3 30 12.8 2 4.5
科教人员 12 6.8 17 7.3 2 4.5
经商者 16 9.0 21 9.0 8 18.2
农民 11 6.2 14 6.0 4 9.1
自由职业者 28 15.8 28 12.0 2 4.5
离退休人员 3 1.7 10 4.3 0 0.0
待业 7 4.0 11 4.7 0 0.0
其他 26 14.7 24 10.3 9 20.5
居住地 四川省 152 85.9 203 86.8 37 84.1 0.239 2 0.888
非四川省 25 14.1 31 13.2 7 15.9

注：**表示在0.01水平上差异显著。

通过分析发现,虽然各类型的旅游者在“性别”“文化程度”“职业”“居住地”等方面都存在一定的差异,但是这种差异并不明显（P>0.05）。而在“年龄”方面,则表现出显著的差异性（P=0.001<0.01）。具体来看,① “灰色型旅游者”,主要集中在“20~49岁”,共占84.7%;② “黑色型旅游者”,主要集中在“20~39岁”,共占60.3%;③ “复合型旅游者”,主要集中在“10~29岁”,共占61.4%。也就是说,“灰色型旅游者”较之其他两者,年龄层稍显偏大,而“复合型旅游者”更显年轻化倾向。

4.5 各类黑色旅游者的态度差异

从表6可以看出,旅游者对北川地震遗址区的保护和旅游开发均持积极的支持态度。其中,“T1.我会支持地震遗址或地震文物的保护”（以下简称“保护态度”）的均值为4.19,且支持率为86.8%,反对率仅为1.8%;同时,“T2.我会支持地震遗址的旅游开发”（以下简称“旅游开发态度”）的均值为3.94,支持率为75.6%,反对率也较低4.6%。需要指出的是,相对于“保护态度”的高支持率来说,旅游者对“旅游开发态度”的支持率较低,且两者之差超过11%。
Tab. 6 Tourists' attitudes towards the protection and utilization of earthquake relics

表6 旅游者对地震遗址保护和旅游开发的态度

项 目 平均值 标准差 支持率(%) 中立(%) 反对率(%)
T1.我会支持地震遗址或地震文物的保护 4.19 0.718 86.8 11.4 1.8
T2.我会支持地震遗址的旅游开发 3.94 0.831 75.6 19.8 4.6
为了考量不同类型旅游者对于案例地的“保护态度”和“旅游开发态度”的差异,利用卡方检验对不同类型旅游者的态度进行分析（表7）。结果显示,三类旅游者在“保护态度”（P=0.047<0.05）和“旅游开发态度”（P=0.005<0.01）两个变量上,均存在显著差异。具体来看,“保护态度”方面,“复合型旅游者”的均值（4.43）最高,“灰色型旅游者”（4.18）次之,“黑色型旅游者”（4.15）最低;而“旅游开发态度”方面,“复合型旅游者”的均值（4.18）仍然最高,但“黑色型旅游者”（3.96）略高于“灰色型旅游者”（3.86）。由此可见,“复合型旅游者”对地震遗址的保护和旅游开发都表现出较高的支持率;而“灰色型旅游者”对地震遗址的保护支持率略高于“黑色型旅游者”;与之相反,“黑色型旅游者”对地震遗址旅游开发的支持率略高于“灰色型旅游者”。
Tab. 7 Attitude differences of segments

表7 各类黑色旅游者的态度差异

Ⅰ类：灰色型
(n=177)		 Ⅱ类：黑色型
(n=234)		 Ⅲ类：复合型
(n=44)		 卡方值 df P
T1 平均值 4.18 4.15 4.43 15.700 8 0.047*
标准差 0.798 0.661 0.625
T2 平均值 3.86 3.96 4.18 21.703 8 0.005**
标准差 0.946 0.722 0.843

注：*表示在0.05水平上差异显著;**表示在0.01水平上差异显著。

5 结论与讨论

（1）黑色旅游动机可以大致归纳为“娱乐与自我发展”“公益与科考教育”“缅怀与探寻地方特色”三方面。其中,“缅怀与探寻地方特色”是最主要的动机,“公益与科考教育”次之,“娱乐与自我发展”最末。如果进一步从动机的“色度”来看,则可以得出以下结论：黑色旅游者的动机主要是“黑色动机”,其次为“灰色动机”,而“白色动机”最少。这在一定程度上验证了Biran等在研究中提出的黑色旅游者的主要动机是责任感（obligation）、教育、纪念等[23,28,30]非“白色动机”的结论。需要说明的是,与许多西方学者的大量关于人文类的黑色旅游地（如战场、集中营）的研究不同,本文在旅游动机测量量表中加入了一些与“地震遗址旅游”特征相对应的、本土化的指标（表1）。因此,与其他研究相比,本文中的非“白色动机”,尤其是“灰色动机”中还包含诸如“爱国主义教育”“防灾减灾教育”等独特的动机要素。另外,还需要强调的是,各类黑色旅游动机之间并非绝对的相互独立,而是存在一个从“黑色”到“白色”递减的过渡过程。也就是说,黑色旅游者的动机是一个“黑色—灰色—白色”的连续谱系（图2）。
Fig. 2 A dark tourism motivation spectrum

图2 黑色旅游动机谱系

（2）基于旅游动机可以将黑色旅游者划分为“灰色型旅游者”、“黑色型旅游者”和“复合型旅游者”三类。其中,“黑色型旅游者”所占比例最高,而“复合型旅游者”的比例最低。虽然,并没有出现纯粹的“白色”旅游者,但是却存在兼有“黑色—灰色—白色”等多种颜色的“复合型旅游者”（图3）。这在一定程度上,印证了Sharpley关于黑色旅游“黑色—灰色—白色”分类体系[11,12]。另外,需要强调的是,对于某一类旅游者（或旅游者个体）来说,其并非只单纯地持有一种动机。正如陈光华指出的那样,旅游行为是由多重动机决定的[39]。同理,每类（个）黑色旅游者可能同时持有多种动机要素（白、灰、黑）,只不过在某个特定的时段（或情景）中,这些动机要素中的某（几）种起到主要作用,进而决定旅游者所展露在外的行为。
Fig. 3 Type characteristics of dark tourists

图3 黑色旅游者的类型特征

（3）“年龄”是决定黑色旅游者特征差异的关键因素。具体来看,“灰色型旅游者”的年龄层稍显偏大,而“复合型旅游者”更显青少年化。Isaac等在研究中也发现,“年龄”是影响黑色旅游者动机差异的重要因素[26]。但是,并未根据旅游动机对旅游者进行分类讨论,同时也未进一步考察导致上述差异的深层原因。为了更进一步分析“年龄”与黑色旅游者特征差异的关系,本文借鉴中国红十字会实施的汶川地震受灾群众调查的结果。根据调查可以发现,成年人比年龄较小的儿童和青少年的心理成熟,同时对负面事件的承受能力以及情绪管控能力也较强[40]。同样地,在面对负面事象时,年龄较大的黑色旅游者往往既会受到一定情感映射,但又不会完全被“同化”,而表现为一种较为中性的“灰色”情感。与此相对,年龄较小（尤其是未成年人）的黑色旅游者,往往难以进行有效地自我调控,进而陷入“黑色”漩涡。当然,也有少部分旅游者会很快将负面情感转化、淡化、消解,甚至表现出与传统伦理道德相悖的“娱乐化”和“病态化”（如窥阴癖、幸灾乐祸）。
（4）与外界广泛质疑（反对）形成鲜明对比,旅游者对于北川地震遗址的保护和旅游开发普遍持支持态度。但相比较而言,旅游者对地震遗址保护的支持率明显高于旅游开发。这说明,他们虽然普遍意识到地震遗址的价值及其保护的重要性,但相对来说,对地震遗址的活用方式（旅游）似乎还缺乏一定的认同感。另外,结合前文旅游者的分类结果来看,三类旅游者对地震遗址保护和旅游开发的态度,均存在显著差异。① 地震遗址保护的支持率：复合型旅游者>灰色型旅游者>黑色型旅游者;② 旅游开发的支持率：复合型旅游者>黑色型旅游者>灰色型旅游者。需要强调的是,在上述两方面,“复合型旅游者”的支持率都远大于后两者,而“灰色型旅游者”和“黑色型旅游者”之间的差异则较小。
以汶川大地震纪念地“北川地震遗址区”为案例分析了黑色旅游者的动机、类型特征和态度差异,对于深入了解黑色旅游者的行为特征具有一定的价值,同时也对于当地相关产业的经营管理具有一定的参考。但需要说明的是,本文未涉及战争遗址地、恐怖袭击地等人为灾害纪念地的旅游者。因此,今后有必要进一步综合考察人为和自然类型的黑色旅游地,并全面考量旅游者的游前行为、实地体验、游后感知等,以总结、构建出黑色旅游者的行为特征规律。另外,由于本文在针对旅游动机的调查题项中,直接使用了“看笑话”“窥探灾难中的死亡和损失”“对死亡和灾难好奇”等较为负面和敏感的词句,这可能导致一些旅游者碍于情面,而不愿真实作答。因此,今后在进行同类问卷调查时,有必要针对问卷用语做进一步改进;同时,也可以结合旅游者的游记、网络日志等受第三方（尤其是调研人员）影响较小的自我描述形式,对旅游者的动机和行为做进一步分析。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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[Kurata Yohei, Okunuki Keiichi, Sadahiro Yukio.The development of preference-based tour planning system. In: Geographic Information Systems Association. Papers and Proceedings of the Geographic Information Systems Association (Volume 9). Tokyo: Geographic Information Systems Association, 2000: 199-202.]

[11]
Sharpley R.Shedding light on dark tourism: An introduction. In: Sharpley R, Stone P R. The Darker Side of Travel: The Theory and Practice of Dark Tourism. Bristol: Channel View Publications, 2009: 3-22.

[12]
Sharpley R.Travels to the edge of darkness: Towards a typology of "dark tourism". In: Ryan C, Page S, Aicken M. Taking Tourism to the Limits: Issues, Concepts and Managerial Perspectives. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005: 187-198.

[13]
Stone P R.Dark tourism and significant other death: Towards a model of mortality mediation. Annals of Tourism Research, 2012, 39(3): 1565-1587.Dark tourism and the commodification of death has become a pervasive feature within the contemporary visitor economy. Drawing upon the thanatological condition of society and a structural analysis of modern-clay mortality, this paper establishes theoretical foundations for exploring dark tourism experiences. The study argues that in Western secular society where ordinary death is sequestered behind medical and professional facades, yet extraordinary death is recreated for popular consumption, dark tourism mediates a potential social filter between life and death. Ultimately, the research suggests that dark tourism is a modern mediating institution, which not only provides a physical place to link the living with the dead, but also allows a cognitive space for the Self to construct contemporary ontological meanings of mortality.

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[14]
Wight A C, Lennon J J.Selective interpretation and eclectic human heritage in Lithuania. Tourism Management, 2007, 28(2): 519-529.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">This paper examines recent controversy in Lithuania surrounding 20th century wartime tragedy with particular emphasis on contrasting the commemoration of the mass extermination of the Jewish community and the suffering of Lithuanian Partisans during Soviet Occupation. Comments are made on the consequences of authorities eschewing research into these areas and the consequent implications for the modern human and tourism heritage offering that currently exists within the country. The paper postulates through analyses of two case studies that recent tragedy in Lithuania is a newly fashioned &lsquo;taboo&rsquo; for authorities and locals. Analysis suggests that there are dichotomous representations of tragedy inherent in two of Lithuania's high profile &lsquo;dark&rsquo; tourist attractions. The paper builds on previous literature examining the phenomenon of &lsquo;dark tourism&rsquo;. The conclusion postulates the need for an open and transparent historical perspective on interpretation and education. These are primary considerations in promoting collective future acceptance of the country's past.</p>

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[15]
Stone P R, Sharpley R.Deviance, dark tourism and 'dark leisure': Towards a (re)configuration of morality and the taboo in secular society. In: Elkington S, Gammon S J. Contemporary Perspectives in Leisure: Meanings, Motives and Lifelong Learning. New York: Routledge, 2014: 54-64.A taboo is a prohibition placed on exposing what is good as well as what is bad. Indeed, prohibited by authority or social influences, taboos are rooted in an unconscious guilt and insulated from our psychosocial life-worlds by mediating institutions of religion and politics. Yet, in an age of secularisation and liberalisation, new mediating institutions of the taboo are emerging, particularly within contemporary museology. Presently, therefore, a number of time-honoured taboos are increasingly becoming translucent and, as a result, there is a new willingness to tackle inherently ambiguous and problematical interpretations. Consequently, an exhilarating phase of museological development has opened up, and with it, the strategic deployment and (re)presentation of taboo subjects within museums, such as death and dying, now provides for a ‘dark leisure’ experience. However, speculation remains as to the consequences and experiential nature of consuming the taboo within the visitor economy. Thus, this chapter offers a a new theoretical model to frame ‘dark leisure’ experiences and the (de)construction of morality within secular society. Ultimately, the chapter suggests ‘dark leisure’ experiences form an integral part of dialogic meaning making and, as such, offer the contemporary leisure visitor a counter-hegemonic and emancipatory opportunity to (de)construct ontological meanings of contemporary society.

[16]
Hsu C H C, Huang S. Travel motivation: A critical review of the concept's development. In: Woodside A G, Martin D. Tourism Management: Analysis, Behaviour and Strategy. Cambridge MA: CABI Publishing, 2008: 14-27.This chapter critically reviews travel motivation research which represents the development of the travel motivation concept over the years. The chapter applies Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory to travel motivational theory. Implicit and explicit applications of the Maslow hierarchy to tourism studies are discussed. Among those studies, the chapter highlights the approaches of the travel care...

DOI

[17]
Uysal M, Jurowski C.Testing the push and pull factors. Annals of Tourism Research, 1994, 21(4): 844-846.

[18]
Yoon Y, Uysal M.An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction on destination loyalty: A structural model. Tourism Management, 2005, 26(1): 45-56.This study offers an integrated approach to understanding tourist motivation and attempts to extend the theoretical and empirical evidence on the causal relationships among the push and pull motivations, satisfaction, and destination loyalty. The research model investigates the relevant relationships among the constructs by using a structural equation modeling approach. Consequently, destination managers should establish a higher tourist satisfaction level to create positive post-purchase tourist behavior, in order to improve and sustain destination competitiveness.

DOI

[19]
Smith S, Costello C, Muenchen R A.Influence of push and pull motivations on satisfaction and behavioral intentions within a culinary tourism event. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 2010, 11(1): 17-35.The study constructs a causal model of culinary tourist behavior from the theoretical framework of push and pull motivations. The study proposed that culinary event attendees' expenditures, word-of-mouth behavior, and repeat patronage intentions would be affected by their overall event satisfaction. Push and pull motivations subsequently were examined for effect on overall satisfaction. Using m...

DOI

[20]
Mohammad B A M A H, Som A P M. An analysis of push and pull travel motivations of foreign tourists to Jordan. International Journal of Business and Management, 2010, 5(12): 41-50.The importance of outbound market to a destination country has drawn scholars’ interests in understanding tourists’ motivation to travel overseas. The success of marketing destinations should be guided by a thorough analysis of tourist motivation, and for this reason, this study adopts a model based on push and pull factors as the conceptual framework. As little information has been documented about travel motivations to Jordan, this study attempts to identify motivation factors of foreign tourists to the country as different tourist markets demonstrate different domains of behavior. This may have important marketing implications to the country especially in terms of examination of motives in segmenting markets, designing promotional programs and decision making about destination development.

DOI

[21]
Klenosky D B.The "pull" of tourism destinations: A means-end investigation. Journal of Travel Research, 2002, 40(4): 396-403.This paper first provides an overview of the push and pull motivational framework for examining different forces that influence a person to consider taking a holiday and, given that decision, the forces that attract that person to select a particular holiday destination. It then reviews prior research conducted to examine the relationship between push and pull factors. Next it examines the pote...

DOI

[22]
Yuill S M.Dark tourism: Understanding visitor motivation at sites of death and disaster. College Station: Texas A&M University, 2003.ABSTRACT People are fascinated with death and disaster. One simply has to watch traffic slow to a crawl when passing a car accident to understand this. However, this fascination goes beyond the side of a highway and enters the realm of tourism. Today, numerous sites of death and disaster attract millions of visitors from all around the world: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Anne Frank's House, Graceland, Oklahoma City, Gettysburg, Vimy Ridge, the Somme, Arlington National Cemetery. The list grows each year as exhibited by the recent creation of an apartheid museum in Johannesburg, South Africa. Due to the increasing popularity of this tourism product, a small number of academics have begun studying the phenomenon. Leading the field are Lennon and Foley who labeled it Dark Tourism, Seaton who coined the term Thanatourism, and Rojek who developed the concept of Black Spots. However, despite ongoing study, there has been a paucity in understanding what actually motivates individuals to sites of dark tourism. Yet understanding motivation is imperative, particularly given the subject and sensitivity of these sites. Some are slowly decaying, and visitors play a large role in their preservation. Subsequently, without proper management, visitor influxes can further deteriorate sites or induce friction with the locals. Knowledge then, also provides administrators the necessary tools to properly manage the varying stakeholders. Although many feel an interest in death and disaster simply stems from morbidity, the range of factors involved extend from an interest in history and heritage to education to remembrance. To begin this study, a list of possible motivations was compiled. Then, to get a better comprehension of these motivations, visitors to the Holocaust Museum Houston were surveyed as a case study. As a commodified, synthetic site of death and atrocity, the museum fits the definitions of a dark tourism site as established by lead academics. Therefore, by asking visitors to the museum what motivated them to the site, the results will hopefully give some acumen into the wants and needs of certain stakeholders. Finally, this research sought to discover if motivation at the museum could shed light on motivation to other sites of dark tourism.

[23]
Biran A, Poria Y, Oren G.Sought experiences at (dark) heritage sites. Annals of Tourism Research, 2011, 38(3): 820-841.Current literature on dark tourism largely follows a supply perspective, almost ignoring the tourist experience. Focusing on Auschwitz-Birkenau death camp (here after Auschwitz), the epitome of dark tourism, the present study sheds light on the nature of this tourism experience by clarifying the relations between the symbolic meanings assigned to the site and core elements of the tourist experience (motivation and sought interpretation benefits). The findings suggest that Auschwitz hosts a heritage experience rather than a merely dark tourism one, and that alongside site attributes, tourists' perceptions of the site should be considered in the conceptualization of the tourist experience. The findings challenge the current understanding of dark tourism as a distinct phenomenon to heritage tourism.

DOI

[24]
Seaton A V.Guided by the dark: From thanatopsis to thanatourism. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 1996, 2(4): 234-244.

[25]
Stone P R.Dark tourism and the cadaveric carnival: mediating life and death narratives at Gunther von Hagens' Body Worlds. Current Issues in Tourism, 2011, 14(7): 685-701.Death is universal, yet dying is not. Consequently, within contemporary secularised society, the process of dying has largely been relocated from the familiar environs of the family and community to a back region of medical and death industry professionals. It is argued that this institutional sequestration of death has made modern dying 'bad' against a romantic portrayal of a death with dignity, or a 'good' death. Moreover, the structural analysis of death reveals issues of ontological security and mortality meaning for the Self. This paper, therefore, adds to that analysis, and specifically examines the construction of mortality meaning within the context of dark tourism - that is, the act of travel to sites of death, disaster or the seemingly macabre. Particularly, the research interrogates the Body Worlds exhibition - a touring attraction of real human corpses - as a reflective space to mediate mortality. In doing so, this paper concludes that dark tourism is a new mediating institution that allows the Self to construct contemporary ontological meanings of mortality and to contemplate both life and death through consumption of the Significant Other Dead.

DOI

[26]
Isaac R K, Cakmak E.Understanding visitor's motivation at sites of death and disaster: The case of former transit camp Westerbork, The Netherlands. Current Issues in Tourism, 2014, 17(2): 164-179.This study begins to fill the gap in research of people's motivations to visit sites of death and suffering and to contribute to a deeper understanding of dark tourism consumption within dark conflict sites. The article aims to examine the motivations of visitors to former transit camp Westerbork as an iconic dark site in the Netherlands. The research process involved a self-administered survey questionnaire filled by 238, randomly selected Dutch visitors. Data are analysed by means of exploratory factor analysis to decide upon the relevant factors for representing the motivations of visitors to Westerbork. The findings show that people visit Westerbork mainly for 'self-understanding', 'curiosity', 'conscience', a 'must see' this place and 'exclusiveness'. This is the first study to examine visitors' motivations to Westerbork as a dark site. Most research on visitor motivations is not based on empirical data, but on theoretical research.

DOI

[27]
Biran A, Liu W, Li G, et al.Consuming post-disaster destinations: The case of Sichuan, China. Annals of Tourism Research, 2014, 47:1-17.Addressing the call for a better understanding of tourist behavior in relation to post-disaster destinations, this study explores the motivations and intentions of potential domestic tourists (from non-hit areas) to visit Sichuan, China in the aftermath of an earthquake. Drawing on dark tourism theories, this study offers a more comprehensive insight into the consumption of post-disaster destinations, aiming to capture the impact of the changes to the destination's attributes on tourist behavior. The findings move beyond the common approach to tourism recovery, which solely focuses on reviving the traditional "non-dark" products. This study reveals the importance of newly formed dark attributes that emerge from the disaster as another means to destination recovery, reflected in the emergence of new tourist segments. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

DOI

[28]
陈星, 张捷, 卢韶婧, 等. 自然灾害遗址型黑色旅游地参观者动机研究: 以汶川地震北川遗址公园为例. 地理科学进展, 2014, 33(7): 979-989.黑色旅游是当前国内外研究的热点之一，黑色旅游开发是自然灾害发生地灾后恢复的一种重要方式。以往研究较多关注战争与事件型黑色旅游地，对自然灾害遗址型旅游地的研究较少。本文以汶川地震北川遗址公园为案例，构建了参观者动机测量量表；通过因子分析得到了教育与纪念动机、社交与亲情动机、感受与见证动机、认同与求新动机和好奇心动机五大类参观者动机类型。为分析和比较不同来源地参观者动机的特征，探究事件关注度和认知欲望对不同类型动机的影响程度差异，分别以全体参观者和四川参观者为样本构建了结构方程模型。结果显示：全体参观者模型中，事件关注度对教育与纪念、社交与亲情等动机影响较大，而对好奇心动机影响较小；认知欲望对教育与纪念、感受与见证以及好奇心等动机影响较大，而对认同和求新动机影响较小。在四川参观者模型中，参观者对汶川事件的关注度不能激发感受与见证动机，认知欲望对社交与亲情动机的影响也不显著，而对于汶川地震地区的认同感和集体认同感较强。

DOI

[Chen Xing, Zhang Jie, Lu Shaojing, et al.Visitor motivations in natural disaster site dark tourism destination:the case of the Beichuan Earthquake Museum. Progress in Geography, 2014, 33(7): 979-989.]

[29]
方叶林, 黄震方, 涂玮, 等. 战争纪念馆游客旅游动机对体验的影响研究: 以南京大屠杀纪念馆为例. 旅游科学, 2013, 27(5): 64-75.本文设计了"学习及好奇"、"责任与义务"、"社会因素"、"个人情感体验"、"教育体验"5个潜变量,构建了战争纪念馆游客旅游动机对体验影响的结构关系模型,并以国家4A级旅游区南京大屠杀纪念馆为例,探讨了此类旅游动机对体验的作用机理。研究结果表明:(1)"责任与义务"是游客访问战争纪念馆的主要动机,也是与传统旅游的根本区别之一,与"个人情感体验"及"教育体验"有较高的路径系数(0.97,0.48);(2)被动地参观战争纪念馆不利于游客体验的提高,从市场营销角度看,应该强调游客积极主动的参与,强调游客"责任与义务"方面的动机;(3)游客参观南京大屠杀纪念馆几乎没有对死亡感兴趣的动机,因此战争纪念馆旅游不完全属于黑色旅游研究范畴;(4)旅游动机及体验是区分特殊兴趣旅游的主要标志,未来需从特殊兴趣旅游(如战争纪念馆旅游)角度进一步探索旅游体验的本质。

DOI

[Fang Yelin, Huang Zhenfang, Tu Wei, et al.Impact of tourism motivation on experience at war memorials: A case study of Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall. Tourism Science, 2013, 27(5): 64-75.]

[30]
Kang E J, Scott N, Lee T J, et al.Benefits of visiting a 'dark tourism' site: The case of the Jeju April 3rd peace park, Korea. Tourism Management, 2012, 33(2): 257-265.This research examines visitor experiences at a contemporary dark tourism site: the April 3rd Peace Park on Jeju Island, South Korea, a site commemorating and memorializing one of the most destructive episodes in modern Korean history. The study employed quantitative and qualitative research methods, with 46 semi-structured interviews forming the basis of a questionnaire, and 407 valid questionnaires obtained for data analysis. The implications of the findings are firstly that 'obligation' remains a key motivation for a visit, with a number of subsequent visitor benefits also identified. Secondly, that a benefit-based approach provides an effective framework for comprehending visitor experiences in dark tourism contexts. And thirdly, that a 'hot interpretation' of visitor experiences in dark tourism contexts remains particularly valid for comprehending visitor experiences, and in turn, for effectively designing and managing dark tourism sites within Asia and more generally. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

DOI

[31]
Seaton A V, Lennon J J.Moral panics, ulterior motives and alterior desires: Thanatourism in the early 21st century. In: Singh T V. New Horizons in Tourism: Strange Experiences and Stranger Practices. Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 2004, 63-82.

[32]
Tonner S L.How has grief tourism re-defined the social and judicial progress of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo?. College Station: Texas A&M University, 2008.The intent of this thesis is to examine the ways in which grief tourism has changed the nature and progress of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo as an organized group of mothers who have spent thirty years searching for answers about the fate of their disappeared children. This thesis will provide a historical overview of the Dirty War followed by a definition of grief tourism and an analysis of tourist's motivations to visit sites of death and disaster. With the increase and development of mass communications, people are able to research and discover remote corners of the world very easily. Furthermore, death and disaster always features as the predominant portion of the daily news. With the free flow of information, whether desired or not, coupled with an innate fascination for the morose, one is enticed to discover and visit sites of death and disaster. Grief tourism has linked visitor destinations all over the world including the concentration camps in Germany, Ground Zero in New York and now, the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina. Research indicates that grief tourism emerges in many differing forms of tourism, cultural being the most prominent. The research also shows that visitation to such sites is becoming increasingly popular. During the thirty years of their campaign, the Madres de Plaza de Mayo have been successful in bringing to justice many of the military leaders guilty of human rights violations, assassination and murder. Having partially met their initial goal, the Madres have continued to focus their attention on other human rights work. Their new found enterprises are intertwined with increasing visitation to the Plaza de Mayo. They have used tourism to their advantage in helping attain their goal of achieving a free Argentina.

[33]
Mowatt R A, Chancellor C H.Visiting death and life: Dark tourism and slave castles. Annals of Tourism Research, 2011, 38(4): 1410-1434.In dark tourism research there is a paucity of research given to the discussion of sites associated with African enslavement. This study is informed by combining qualitative data from interviews that were conducted with 14 individuals pre- and post-travel to Cape Coast Castle, Ghana, alongside elicited photographs from the site, and a narrative analysis on other visitations and reflections of coastal castles. In bringing the discussion of these sites into an overall conceptual discussion of dark tourism, careful consideration needs to be given to the nuances that is evident in the sites' histories, the interactions and interpretations of tourists with those sites, and their management and oversight by the Ghanaian authorities and the UNESCO Slave Route Project.

DOI

[34]
Best M.Norfolk Island: Thanatourism, history and visitor emotions. Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures, 2007, 1(2): 30-48.ABSTRACT An increasingly popular tourism niche involves visits to sites of death and human suffering. This form of travel has become known as 'thanatourism' and its study is a research field that has emerged from studies of war and battlefield tourism (Seaton, 1996, 1999). Although considered to be a highly emotional experience for visitors, little remains known about thanatourists' emotions during visits (Austin, 2002). To begin to fill this research gap, the current study explored tourists' emotions whilst visiting Norfolk Island's convict sites and attractions. Norfolk Island is a self-governing external territory of Australia, located in the South-West Pacific. It is rich in history and culture; a heritage that remains the nucleus of the islands primary industry -tourism. Study findings are drawn from arrival and departure visitor questionnaires and follow-up, in-depth, post-travel interviews. The findings indicate that viewing convict sites produces a multitude of emotions, all of which impact on visitor experiences in some way. The study utilises Fredrickson's (1998) Broaden and Built Theory of Positive Emotions to explore how visitors' thought-action repertoires are broadened throughout their emotional encounters. Findings build upon current knowledge of thanatourism and Norfolk Island's history and heritage. In doing so, the study has developed a greater understanding of the role of emotions in visitor experiences.

[35]
Rittichainuwat B N.Responding to disaster: Thai and Scandinavian tourists' motivation to visit Phuket, Thailand. Journal of Travel Research, 2007, 46(4): 422-432.This study explores travel motivation on thanatourism of tourists visiting the disaster-hit beach resort of Phuket and identifies differences in tourist motivation between Thais and Scandinavians and between tourists of different age and gender. The findings reveal that curiosity about the outcome of the tsunami, desire to help local people, and safety were the most important travel motivations...

DOI

[36]
Farmaki A.Dark tourism revisited: A supply/demand conceptualization. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2013, 7(3): 281-292.

[37]
向朝阳. 政协委员建议尽快开放地震遗址旅游. 成都商报, 2008-07-06.

[Xiang Chaoyang. Suggestion from Sichuan CPPCC member: Earthquake relics should be opened up to visitors as soon as possible. Chengdu Business Daily, 2008-07-06.]

[38]
黄颖华, 黄福才. 旅游者感知价值模型、测度与实证研究. 旅游学刊, 2007, 22(8): 42-47.感知价值是竞争优势的新源泉。本文通过剖析顾客感知价值理论及研究进展，致力于构建旅游者感知价值的结构模型，探讨旅游者如何形成对旅游经历价值的感知。实证研究以内地居民“香港游”为例，验证理论模型及其假设，开发出旅游者感知价值测评量表，为旅游地管理实践提供了一

DOI

[Huang Yinghua, Huang Fucai.Tourists perceived value model and its measurement: An empirical study. Tourism Tribune, 2007, 22(8): 42-47.]

[39]
陈光华. 生态旅游旅客行为模式之建构: 以旅游动机为中介变项. 休闲暨观光产业研究, 2006, 1(1):1-18.

[Chen Kaunghwa.Construction of travel behavior model for ecotourism-travel motivation as an intermediated variable. Journal of Leisure and Tourism Industry Research, 2006, 1(1): 1-18.]

[40]
潘建中. 灾后心理危机研究: 5•12汶川地震心理危机干预的调查报告. 北京: 北京航空航天大学出版社, 2008.

[Pan Jianzhong.. Research on Psychological Crisis Intervention after Disaster: Survey on Psychological Crisis Intervention After 5•12 Wenchuan Earthquake. Beijing: Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Press, 2008.]

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