梯田是在大面积多山地形和较高人口密度条件下产生的山区土地高效利用方式,广泛分布于世界各地,并且在不同的地理气候条件下产生了不同的类型,具有重要的生态价值和文化价值.梯田作为陡坡耕作区古老的土壤保持措施,有利于农业集约化,一般而言,梯田建设的目的是为了保持水土,减少产流产沙,改善立地环境,便于农业生产.在当前社会经济发展的背景下,大面积的梯田遭到荒废,不仅浪费了土地资源,还易导致严重的土壤侵蚀、坡面坍塌和土地退化.本文综述全球不同地理区域和自然环境条件下梯田的起源、发展以及分布特征,主要选择亚洲、欧洲、美洲和非洲四大重点区域进行系统介绍,并针对每一大洲内的典型国家做了案例剖析.在此基础上,深入探讨梯田建设、利用和荒废过程与气候变化、国家政策、人口变迁等因素的关系,最后针对目前梯田区存在的水资源紧张和梯田荒废退化两个严重问题,提出了尚需开展的研究工作,以期为梯田的可持续利用与管理提供参考依据.

传统的乡村现代化发展范式和地理学关于乡村的区域差异研究之间存在缝隙,不足以为快速演化分异的乡村地域发展提供直接理论支撑。本文引入西方近20年来逐渐兴起的多功能农业与多功能乡村理论,从新的视角观察思考中国乡村多元化发展的目标、路径及对策。首先从经济、社会和环境三个方面反思中国乡村现代化的基本历程与得失,以及西方国家乡村现代化产生的问题,指出传统的农业农村现代化发展在很大程度是以牺牲乡村环境和乡村社会机理脆弱化为代价的,也造成了乡村经济对外部支持的过度依赖,仅仅强调“现代化”发展范式显然是不够的;然后简要介绍了国外多功能农业与多功能乡村理论;在此基础上,从功能角度提出中国农业农村发展的多元目标,推演探讨农业农村发展的区域差异化路径及对策。

There is a big gap between general rural modernization paradigm and huge empirical rural geography studies. This gap results in impotent development strategies on regionally differentiated countryside. Based on multifunctional agriculture theory and multifunctional rural theory which emerged in Western World as a new paradigm, this paper discusses the multiple objectives, differentiated pathways and policies of agriculture and rural development in China. Firstly, this paper reflects the problems and challenges caused by modernization paradigm in rural China on economic, social, and environmental aspects, as well as that of western developed countries. It can be concluded that conventional agricultural and rural modernization is developed largely at the expense of rural environment, social fabric and economic viabilities. Obviously, "modernization development paradigm" alone is not enough for healthy agricultural and rural development in such booming economy as China. A better paradigm should be developed which takes economic development, social justice and environmental sustainability into account at the same time. After a brief review of multifunctional agriculture theory and multifunctional rural theory overseas, the multiple objectives of agriculture and rural development in China are put forward. These multiple objectives, however, should not and could not be a burden on rural space indiscriminatingly due to the enormous differentiation of natural and socio-economic conditions. Thus, the final but main part of this paper envisions the differentiated pathways and policy portfolios of agricultural and rural development in China from the perspective of territorial division.

本文综合运用样带、地统计、地理探测器等多种研究方法, 分析了1990 年以来中国县域城镇化的时空特征及形成机理。研究表明:①中国县域城镇化水平时空动态的差异特征显著, 北方边境县域高城镇化和东部沿海县域高城镇化形成的“人字形”空间形态逐渐凸显;以武汉都市圈为中心的两湖地区、成渝地区、关中—天水经济区的县域城镇化水平提升较快, 西南地区、青藏高原地区保持较低的城镇化水平;②2000 年以来中国县域城镇化水平及其变化速度的区域差异逐渐缩小, 陇海兰新线、长江沿线、北方边境、106 国道、东部沿海样带县域城镇化差异明显;县域经济发展阶段、固定资产投资、离中心城市距离、二三产业水平、农民人均纯收入、人口密度是影响县域城镇化空间分异的主要因素, 同时粮食生产主导定位、非农业人口统计口径、城镇设置标准等因素也影响县域城镇化水平及发展过程。未来城镇化发展应遵循地域差异, 凸显主导功能, 推进优化与重点发展区的集约型城镇化、耕地与粮食主产区的分流型城镇化、生态与水源保护区的迁移型城镇化, 以及园区与城镇近郊区的融入型城镇化, 实现城乡土地资源集约利用, 促进城镇化进程中人—地—业耦合与协调发展。

The spatial and temporal characteristics and the formation mechanism of the county urbanization in China since 1990 were analyzed systematically, using the methods including regional differences, transect and geography detectors. Results show that the temporal and spatial differences of the county urbanization were significant. The "herringbone" shape region pattern of high county urbanization was gradually highlighted, which were made by the counties along the north border and in eastern coastal areas. The county urbanization process of some regions were accelerated and enhanced, including Wuhan metropolitan region, Chengdu-Chongqing region and Guanzhong-Tianshui region. The low county urbanization level was maintained in Southwest China and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau regions. The differences of urbanization and the change rate of county urbanization were converged in China after 2000, but the rate has slowed down since 2000. The county urbanization trend of transects were significantly different, including Lianyungang-Lanzhou railway and Lanzhou-Urumqi railway transects, the Yangtze River transect, the border of north China transect, 106 National Road transect, and the eastern coastal transect. There are many factors affecting county urbanization, mainly including economic development stage, the level of secondary and tertiary industries, rural net income per capita, population density, leading position of grain production, demographic statistics and special arrangements for counties. The high county urbanization in northern border regions was a typical type of statistical unrealistically high urbanization. In the future county urbanization development should follow the geographical differences, highlight its leading function, and adopt multiple urbanization development models such as promoting urbanization intensively in key urban economic development areas, separating urbanization in cropland and grain producing areas, migrating urbanization in ecological and water resource protection areas, suburban areas and urban-based urbanization and other leading county urbanization patterns.

本文在探究“生产—生活—生态”三生空间理论内涵的基础上,分析了土地利用功能与土地利用类型的辩证关系,依据土地利用现状分类国家标准,建立了三生空间分类与评价体系,揭示了1990-2010年间中国三生空间的格局及其变化特征。结果表明：① 生产空间主要分布在胡焕庸线东南侧的主要城市群及粮食主产区,其扩张区域主要分布于东北平原、新疆西北、宁夏、兰州—西宁、四川盆地、环渤海、长三角、厦漳泉、珠三角等地区,缩小区域主要分布在黄土高原、呼伦贝尔大草原、江汉平原、闽南丘陵等地区;② 生活空间主要集中在全国主要城市及城市群,整体上呈现“东高西低、北高南低;大分散、小集聚”的空间格局,其扩张过程表现为环渤海、长三角、珠三角三大城市群的大规模、区域式扩张和各主要省会城市的小规模、点状式扩张。③ 生态空间主要分布在胡焕庸线西北侧,整体呈现“西高东低,南高北低”的空间格局;④ 工业化、城镇化是中国三生空间变化的基本动力,西北和东北地区的农田开垦、华北平原和三大城市群的城镇化建设、黄土高原的退耕还林等是导致三生空间区域差异的主要原因。本文可以为三生空间的分类规划和优化决策提供参考依据。

This paper created a land use classification system of production-living-ecological spaces based on analyzing the theories of production-living-ecological spaces and commanding the dialectical relationships between land use types and land use functions. The classification system perfectly connected to the state standard of land use classification. Based on this system, we examined the spatial and temporal patterns of production-living-ecological spaces in China between 1990 and 2010. The results showed that: (1) The production spatial pattern almost unchanged between 1990 and 2010, and the production spaces were mainly distributed in the southeast of the Hu Huanyong Line, including Northeast China Plain, northwest Xinjiang, Ningxia, Lanzhou-Xining, Sichuan Basin, Bohai Rim, Yangtze River Delta, Xiamen-Quanzhou-Zhangzhou, and Pearl River Delta, where China's urban agglomerations and main grain production areas were located in. (2) Living spaces were mainly distributed in China's urban agglomerations and cities, showing a spatial pattern of "high in the east and north regions, while low in the west and south regions". Its spatial expansion varied in different areas. Large-scale expansion of living spaces appeared in the Bohai Rim, Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta, while small-scale and point-type expansion in the major provincial capitals. (3) Ecological spaces were mainly distributed in the northwest of the Hu Huanyong Line, showing a spatial pattern of "high in the west and south regions, while low in the east and north regions". The expansion of ecological spaces were mainly in the Loess Plateau, Hulun Buir Glassland and Tianshan Mountains, while the reduction of ecological spaces were mainly in the Northeast China Plain, North China Plain, Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Ningxia and Xinjiang. (4) Industrialization and urbanization were the basic driving powers of changes of China's production-living-ecological spaces. The main reasons for regional spatial differences across China included farmland cultivation in Northwest and Northeast China, rapid urbanization in North China, Bohai Rim, Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta, and reversion of farmland to forestland in the Loess Plateau. This research was valuable for the studies on classification and evaluation of production-living-ecological spaces.

山区土地开发及其导致的资源环境问题是农业社会人地关系紧张的体现,工业化、城镇化进程中劳动力转移减轻了山区农村土地的人为扰动,由此驱动土地利用发生转型,引发一系列自然和社会经济效应。按照“土地利用转型—驱动力—效应—响应”的分析框架,剖析中国山区农村土地利用转型的特征和规律,提出山区农村土地整治的响应措施。研究表明：① 山区农村土地利用转型体现出土地利用形态在长期变化过程中的趋势性转折,显性形态转型即由农业社会的耕地扩张和林地收缩演变为城镇化进程中的耕地收缩和林地恢复性增长,隐性形态转型即伴随上述过程发生的土地边际化及生态功能恢复;② 社会经济因素主导山区农村土地利用转型过程,劳动力转移引发土地人为扰动减轻是直接驱动力,务农机会成本上升、恶劣的生存环境等引发劳动力转移的因素是更为根本的驱动力;③ 山区农村土地利用转型降低了土地生态系统脆弱性并提高了其生态安全屏障功能,其社会经济效应应聚焦山区农村发展与农户生计安全层面,并亟需实证研究的支撑;④ 当前山区农村土地利用转型是自然恢复和生态优化的良性过程,有着经济社会发展的必然规律,山区农村土地整治要顺应其土地利用转型规律,目标导向从耕地数量增加转向生态环境保护与社会经济福祉协同提升。

In agricultural society, the cultivation of mountainous land was a representative of intensified contradiction between human and land which resulted in water loss and soil erosion. With the rapid urbanization and industrialization in poverty-stricken mountainous areas, the labor emigration relieves this contradiction significantly, and leads to land use transition, which results in a series of natural and socio-economic changes. This research built an analysis framework of "Land use transition - driving mechanism - effects - responses" in mountainous land use transition and then put forward the further direction of mountainous land reclamation. The results indicate that: (1) The tendency change of land use morphology was the core of rural land use transition in mountainous areas. The expansion of cropland, as well as the contraction of forest land in agricultural society, has changed to the abandonment of cropland and the expansion of forest land is the main characteristic of the dominant land use morphology transition. Land marginalization and land ecological functional recovery are the main characteristics of the recessive land use morphology transition in mountainous areas. (2) Socio-economic factors are the primary driving forces during the mountainous land use transition. Labor emigration is the direct driving forces. Meanwhile, the rising costs of farming opportunities, and the harsh living environment that lead to labor emigration are the root cause for mountainous land use transition. (3) The transition of rural land use in mountainous areas reduces the vulnerability of land ecosystem and improves its ecological security barrier function. The advantages and disadvantages of its socio-economic effects should focus on rural development of mountainous areas and the livelihood of farmers, and need to be supported by empirical and quantitative researches. (4) The transition of land use in rural areas is a benign process of natural restoration and ecological optimization. The rural land remediation in mountainous areas should conform to the law of land use transition, and the target orientation will shift from the increase of cultivated land to the synergies of ecological and environmental protection.

耕地利用边际化是当前中国山区土地利用主要变化趋势。利用《全国农产品成本收益资料汇编》资料,本文首先分析2003年以来农业劳动力价格快速上涨的背景下,中国农业生产成本的结构变化以及农户的响应,并对比平原和山区农户对劳动力成本上升的响应方式及程度的差异,发现平原地区能够通过大规模的农业机械替代减少劳动投入,进而有效减少劳动力价格上升所带来的影响,而山区因地形条件限制,劳动生产率提升相对缓慢,并与平原地区的差距不断扩大,导致农业劳动力成本占比不断上涨。随着劳动力成本的快速上涨,中国山区耕地边际化特征明显,以玉米为代表的种植业净利润在2013年普遍降至零以下。2000年以来,中国山区土地利用和植被变化表现为耕地面积减少、森林面积增加、NDVI指数增强,而且在省级层次上,山区县范围NDVI变化率与耕地和森林面积变化率分别具有很强的负相关（r = -0.70）和正相关（r = 0.91）,证实了中国山区耕地当前边际化的发展态势。基于以上分析,本文最后对务农机会成本上升、农业劳动力快速析出背景下的山区耕地利用边际化机理进行了总结。这一研究有助于深入认识山区耕地撂荒和森林转型的发展过程。

Farmland marginalization has become the main trend of land-use change in the mountainous areas of China. Using the China Agricultural Production Costs and Returns Compilation (annual survey data of major agricultural production costs and earnings at national and provincial levels), this paper first analyzed the changes in the cost structure of agricultural production and the farmers' responses, under the context of the rapid rise in agricultural labor prices since 2003, and further compared the responses from the mountainous and plain regions. We found that farmers on the plains have reduced their labor input effectively through intensive use of agricultural machinery, which has minimized the impact of the increase in labor price. However, it is a severe challenge for farmers in the mountainous areas to use the same method due to the rough terrains. Thus, the agricultural labor productivity in these areas has increased relatively slowly, causing a widening gap in agricultural labor productivity between the two regions. With the rapid rise in labor costs, the marginalization of cultivated land in the mountainous areas is evident. In 2013, the profit of agricultural production in mountainous China, which takes maize cultivation as a representative, has fallen below zero. Since 2000, the land-use and land cover change in these areas has been characterized by the reduction of farmland area, reforestation, and the enhancement of the NDVI value. The high correlation between the NDVI change rate and the ratio of change in farmland (r = -0.70) and forest (r = 0.91) areas in mountainous areas at provincial level from 2000 to 2010, attests to the trend of farmland marginalization there. Finally, according to the analysis results, we summarized the mechanism of such marginalization against the backdrop of the rapid increase in the opportunity cost of farming and the sharp fall of agricultural labor forces. This study contributes to a deep understanding of the development process of farmland abandonment and forest transformation in the mountainous areas of China.

以世界文化遗产的云南红河哈尼梯田为例,基于元阳县自然资源局的土地利用的空间矢量数据,利用地理信息系统技术提取2013-2018年元阳县与梯田核心景区的土地利用类型信息,分析梯田耕作时空演变的总体特征和变化趋势,选取级差地租理论解释梯田耕作的演化逻辑,并通过实地调研说明政府的外力干预效果。结果表明：1）梯田核心区的耕地比例大于整个元阳县的耕地比例,且不同于元阳县内旱地面积大于水田面积,核心区内的水田面积为旱地面积的一倍,表明核心区的水田比非核心区保护得更好；2）在没有外力干预的自然情况下非核心区与核心区水田分别呈现改旱和撂荒趋势,民族内部的文化力量难以可持续抗衡这种变迁。而政府作为市场失灵的调控机关,在遗产保护任务和政治利益激励的诉求下,干预了核心区的梯田演变过程,通过提高级差地租Ⅱ实现核心区的土地增值,集中加大对核心区的资源要素投入,从而有效延缓了梯田遗产消失或变更的进程；而非核心区由于缺乏政府有力的干预,梯田正呈现逐渐消失的趋势。

As an important global cultural heritage, terraced fields are currently facing abandonment and being transformed into dry land. This study explores the influence of a foreseeable external intervention on terrace protection measures by using the Honghe Hani Terraces in Yunnan, which are a world cultural heritage site, as an example. According to the land use vector data obtained by the Yuanyang County Natural Resources Bureau, the land-use information of Yuanyang County and the core scenic area of the terraced fields during 2013-2018 were extracted through the geographic information system technology to further explore the influence of external forces on the protection of paddy fields in the core area of terraced fields. This paper uses extreme rent theory to explain the evolutionary logic of terrace farming, explaining the effect of external force intervention by the government through field research. This study has two primary results. First, the proportion of cultivated land in the core area of terraces was larger than that in Yuanyang County; the paddy field section in the core area is twice the size of the dryland area, indicating that the paddy field in the core area is better protected than that in the non-core area. In terms of the spatial and temporal dynamic evolution of land types, the area of dry and construction lands increased the most in Yuanyang County from 2013 to 2018, while that of the paddy fields and garden land showed a decreasing trend. It can also be concluded that the intensity of farming activities on the paddy fields decreased throughout Yuanyang County, with paddy fields drying to some extent. However, the land type in the core area of the terraced fields was relatively stable; it is speculated that the large-scale traditional agricultural production mode has been retained. Second, according to the current land-use situation, the influence of external force intervention on terrace farming was analyzed by consulting different theories, field studies, and interviews. Differential rent theory summarizes the two forms of land rent model without outside intervention and under natural conditions. Land value is only included in differential rent Ⅰ as financially rational male villagers prefer the more economical dry land crops (non-core), while OuDeGai drought or migrant workers prefer abandoned crops (core). The land value is only reflected in the differential rent I. As a rational economic man, the villagers prefer to grow dry land cash crops (to change drought in non-core areas) or to go out for work (abandon farming in core areas). When considering urbanization, internal national cultural forces (local attachment and insecurity) show inertia resistance and vulnerability, rendering it difficult to guarantee the long-term cultural inheritance of terraced fields when relying on traditional forces. In contrast, based on its political responsibilities and the demand of the people, the government intervened in the core area in a prescient way. By hosting major events applying for World Cultural Heritage to attract investment, the land value in the core area has been increased, terraces in the core area are being successfully protected and managed, and disappearance or alteration of this cultural heritage has been effectively delayed. However, in the non-core area, there is no foreseeable external force intervention, and the terraced fields show a trend of gradual disappearance.

以2013年6月列入世界文化景观遗产的红河哈尼梯田文化景观区内的乡村聚落景观——云南省红河州元阳县全福庄中寨为研究对象,通过实地调查、访谈和GIS制图分析等方法,分析了哈尼聚落景观的组成要素与内部结构、景观空间格局及其演变。结果表明：1）哈尼聚落景观的边界以实际存在的树带和树门来分离精神世界里人和鬼魂的地域空间；聚落内部受地形和血缘关系影响形成组团式结构,传统民居以蘑菇房为代表；2）聚落具有独特的文化景观要素——用于祭祀和祈福的寨神林、用于娱乐和晾晒粮食的磨秋场以及用于生活取水和祭祀的水井,它们体现了哈尼族崇拜自然的宗教文化体系；3）哈尼聚落景观的空间格局具有森林在上、村落居中、梯田在下、水系贯穿其中的特点,聚落的选址正是基于景观空间格局与适宜人居和便于到达梯田耕作的特点选定；4）哈尼聚落景观在空间演变方面具有独特的分寨和“地名连名”制特点,聚落用地在50 a间扩大了近10倍,而蘑菇房的周边和内部结构则出现了多向演变的趋势,其中现代砖混房屋的比例正呈急剧增加趋势；5）哈尼聚落景观作为哈尼梯田文化景观遗产的组成要素之一,在维系遗产稳定性方面具有重要作用。因此,如何传承与保护哈尼聚落景观成为当务之急,未来应注重聚落空心化等的研究。

<p>This paper takes the rural settlement landscape of Hani rice terrace culture landscape areas as the research object, and makes a case study on Quanfuzhuang Middle village, Yuanyang County, which was inscribed on the World Cultural Landscape in June of 2013. Through field surveys, interviews, and GIS mapping analysis method, the paper analyzes the elements, the internal structure, landscape spatial structure and evolution of Hani village landscape. The results are as follows: 1) the boundary of Hani village landscape is the actual existing tree band and tree door, which is used to separate the human spiritual world and ghost in the geographical space; because of the group structure affected by the terrain and kinship, the settlements&rsquo; traditional houses are represented by mushroom house; 2) the settlements have some unique cultural landscape elements: the sacred groves used for sacrifice and pray, <em>Moqiuchang</em> used for entertainment and drying grain, and water wells used for domestic water and sacrifice, which all reflect the system of religious culture, that is nature worship; 3) Hani village landscape takes on a spatial pattern: the forest in the above, the village in the middle, the terrace in the below, and the rivers run through them, so the locations of settlements are based on the landscape pattern, suitable for living and accessible to the terrace; 4) the spatial evolution of Hani village landscape is characterized by separated stockade and hyphenated place names, land use of the settlements has expanded by nearly 10 times in the last 50 years, and the perimeter and internal structure of mushroom house turn on a trend of multi-directional evolution, in which the proportion of modern mixed brick room shows a sharp increase trend; 5) as one of the elements of Hani rice terrace cultural landscape, Hani village landscape plays an important role in maintaining the stability of heritage. Therefore, top priority should be given to inheritance and protection of the Hani village landscape, and the future research should focus on settlement hollow phenomenon.</p>

Traditional cultivation terraces are one of the most ancient and conspicuous agricultural landscapes in mountain and hilly regions of the Mediterranean basin. Spreading out from Asia, the first terraces in the Mediterranean region date from the Bronze Age and the classical Hellenic and Roman periods, reaching their greatest spatial extent during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Under optimum management, these systems contribute to the conservation of soil and water resources by increasing infiltration and decreasing sediment yield. However, traditional management and cultivation ceased on many terraced landscapes of the northern-shore Mediterranean countries during the twentieth century, with variable results. An extensive bibliographic review and meta-analysis was carried out to explore the main effects of land abandonment of Mediterranean agricultural terraces on local hydrological and geomorphological processes. Our results point to the development of vegetation cover and degradation of terraced structures (e.g., walls, terrace risers, channels) as the main critical factors controlling the hydrological behaviour (i.e., runoff production and hydrological connectivity) of abandoned terrace systems. Severe geomorphological problems, in the form of intense surface erosion, aggressive piping and gullying, occurred under special climatic (semi-arid climate), lithologic (dispersive marls) and structural (high vertical hydraulic gradient) conditions. Dense colonization by vegetation proved to be of major importance for controlling surface erosion. Vegetation, however, showed a limited capacity to control the activity of mass movements in most cases. Mass movements in the form of small soil slips primarily affected long-abandoned terraces in hillslope concavities and valley bottom positions that concentrate (surface and subsurface) water fluxes and show recurrent soil saturation. In humid terraced landscapes characterized by high hillslope gradients and terrace risers, the most devastating effects of mass movements took place in the form of debris slips and terrace cascading landslides triggered by extreme rainfall. A variety of management options (non-intervention, stewardship of natural rewilding processes and active rehabilitation) can be applied, depending on vegetation development potential, site hydro-geomorphic vulnerability and local socio-economic interests. Effective conservation approaches will be required to preserve the environmental, socio-cultural and historical values of these ancient anthropogenic landscapes. (C) 2019 Elsevier B.V.